Satellite Orbits & Trajectories

Chapter-2

Satellites orbits
GEO 36,000 km

Satellite Orbits
GEO LEO MEO HEO HAPs
MEO LEO 5,000 15,000 km 500 -1000 km

Geostationary Earth Orbit (GEO)

These satellites are in orbit 35,863 km Objects in Geostationary orbit revolve around the earth at the same speed as the earth rotates. This means GEO satellites remain in the same position relative to the surface of earth. now over 200 active commercial communications satellites in geostationary orbit.

Low Earth Orbit (LEO)

LEO satellites are much closer to the earth than GEO satellites, ranging from 500 to 1,500 km above the surface. LEO satellites dont stay in fixed position relative to the surface, and are only visible for 15 to 20 minutes each pass. A network of LEO satellites is necessary for LEO satellites to be useful

LEO (cont.)
Disadvantages
A network of LEO satellites is needed, which can be costly LEO satellites have to compensate for Doppler shifts cause by their relative movement. Atmospheric drag effects LEO satellites, causing gradual orbital deterioration.

Medium Earth Orbit (MEO)

A MEO satellite is in orbit 8,000 km -18,000 km MEO satellites are visible for much longer periods of time than LEO satellites, usually between 2 to 8 hours. MEO satellites have a larger coverage area than LEO satellites. A.k.a. Intermediate Circular Orbits (ICO),

Highly Elliptical Orbit (HEO)

Known as Molniya Orbit Satellites
Used by Russia for decades. Molniya Orbit is an elliptical orbit. The satellite remains in a nearly fixed position relative to earth for eight hours. A series of three Molniya satellites can act like a GEO satellite. Useful in near polar regions.

Other Orbits (cont.)

High Altitude Platform (HAP)
One of the newest ideas in satellite communication. A blimp or plane around 20 km above the earths surface is used as a satellite. HAPs would have very small coverage area, but would have a comparatively strong signal. Cheaper to put in position, but would require a lot of them in a network.

Orbiting Satellites: Basic Principles

The motion of natural and artificial satellites around earth is governed by two forces One of them is Centripetal force directed towards the center of the Earth due to gravitational force of Earth. Other is Centrifugal force is the force exerted during circular motion, by the moving object upon the other object around which it is moving.

 Here Satellite is exerting centrifugal force. The force that is causing circular motions is centripetal force. These two forces are explained from Newtons Law of motion and Gravitation.

Newtons Laws of Motion

1st Law An object at rest will stay at
rest, and an object in motion will stay in motion at constant velocity, unless acted upon by an unbalanced force.

2nd Law Force equals mass times

acceleration.

3rd Law For every action there is an

equal and opposite reaction.

Newton's Law of Gravity

In the Principia, Newton defined the force of gravity in the following way (translated from the Latin): Every particle of matter in the universe attracts every other particle with a force that is directly proportional to the product of the masses of the particles and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.

 Fg = The force of gravity (typically in newtons) G = The gravitational constant, which adds the proper level of proportionality to the equation. The value of G is 6.67259 x 1011 N * m2 / kg2, although the value will change if other units are being used. m1 & m1 = The masses of the two particles (typically in kilograms) r = The straight-line distance between the two particles (typically in meters)

Newtonss 1st Law and You

Dont let this be you. Wear seat belts. Because of inertia, objects (including you) resist changes in their motion. When the car going 80 km/hour is stopped by the brick wall, your body keeps moving at 80 m/hour.

Newtons 2nd Law The net force of an object is equal to the product of its mass and acceleration, or F=ma.

3rd Law
For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.
There are two forces resulting from this interaction - a force on the chair and a force on your body. These two forces are called action and reaction forces.

Johannes Kepler
German astronomer (1571 1630)
Spent most of his career tediously analyzing huge amounts of observational data (most compiled by Tycho Brahe) on planetary motion (orbit periods, orbit radii, etc.) Used his analysis to develop Laws of planetary motion. Laws in the sense that they agree with observation, but not true theoretical laws, such as Newtons Laws of Motion & Newtons Universal Law of Gravitation.

Keplers Laws
Keplers First Law
Keplers Laws are consistent with & are obtainable from Newtons Laws

Keplers Second Law

All planets move in elliptical orbits with the Sun at one focus The radius vector drawn from the Sun to a planet sweeps out equal areas in equal time intervals
The square of the orbital period of any planet is proportional to the cube of the semimajor axis of the elliptical orbit

Keplers Third Law

Math Review: Ellipses

The points F1 & F2 are each a focus of the ellipse
Located a distance c from the center Sum of r1 and r2 is constant

Longest distance through center is the major axis, 2a

a is called the semimajor axis

Shortest distance through center is the minor axis, 2b

b is called the semiminor axis

Typical Ellipse

The eccentricity is defined as e = (c/a)

For a circle, e = 0 The range of values of the eccentricity for ellipses is 0 < e < 1 The higher the value of e, the longer and thinner the ellipse

Ellipses & Planet Orbits

The Sun is at one focus
Nothing is located at the other focus

Aphelion is the point farthest away from the Sun

The distance for aphelion is a + c
For an orbit around the Earth, this point is called the apogee

Perihelion is the point nearest the Sun

The distance for perihelion is a c
For an orbit around the Earth, this point is called the perigee

Keplers 1st Law

All planets move in elliptical orbits with the Sun at one focus
A circular orbit is a special case of an elliptical orbit
The eccentricity of a circle is e = 0. Keplers 1st Law can be shown (& was by Newton) to be a direct result of the inverse square nature of the gravitational force. Comes out of Ns 2nd Law + Ns Gravitation Law + Calculus

Elliptic (and circular) orbits are allowed for bound objects

A bound object repeatedly orbits the center An unbound object would pass by and not return
These objects could have paths that are parabolas (e = 1) and hyperbolas (e > 1)

Orbital Parameters The satellite orbit which in general is elliptical, is characterized by a number of parameters. The following are orbital elements and parameters. Ascending and Descending Node Equinoxes Solstices Apogee Perigee

Orbital Parameters Eccentricity Semi-Major Axis Right Ascension of Ascending Node Inclination Argument of the Perigee True Anomaly of Satellite Angles Defining Direction of Satellite

Ascending and Descending Nodes

The satellite orbit cuts the equatorial plane at two points, the first called the descending node (n1), where satellite passes From northern hemisphere to the Southern hemisphere, and second Called ascending node (n2), where Satellite passes from southern to northern Hemisphere.

Equinox

An equinox occurs twice a year (around 20 March and 22 September), when the tilt of the Earth's axis is inclined neither away from nor towards the Sun, the center of the Sun being in the same plane as the Earth's equator. The term equinox can also be used in a broader sense, meaning the date when such a passage happens. The name "equinox" is derived from the Latin aequus (equal) and nox (night), because around the equinox, night and day are about equal length.

Solstices
Solstices are the times when the inclination angle is at its maximum (i.e 23.4 deg). These also occur twice a year on 21 June, called the summer solstice and 21 December called the winter solstice.

Apogee
Apogee is a point on the satellite orbit that is at the farthest distance from the center of the Earth. The apogee distance A can be computed from the known values of orbit eccentricity e and the semi-major axis a as A=a(1+e)

Perigee
Perigee is the point on the orbit that is nearest to the centre of the earth . The perigee distance P can be computed by P=a(1-e)

Eccentricity The orbit eccentricity e is ratio of the distance between the center of the ellipse and the center of the Earth to semi-major axis of the ellipse. It can be computed by
e= +

e= 2
2 2

e=

Where a and b are semi-major and semi-minor axes, respectively.

Right Ascension of Ascending Node

The Right Ascension of the Ascending Node (aW) indicates the geocentric Right Ascension (R.A. or a) of a satellite as it intersects the Earth's equatorial plane traveling northward (ascending). Its value can range anywhere from 0 to 360 degrees.

Inclination
A satellite orbit's Inclination (i) indicates the angle of the satellite orbit plane measured from the Earth's equatorial plane. Inclination can range anywhere from 0 to 180 degrees. An orbit inclination of 0 to 90 degrees is called a prograde orbit. An orbit inclination of 90 to 180 degrees is called a retrograde orbit.

Argument of the Perigee

The Argument of Perigee (w) is defined as the angle within the satellite orbit plane that is measured from the Ascending Node (W) to the perigee point (p) along the satellite's direction of travel. The value of the Argument of Perigee can be anywhere from 0 to 360 degrees.

True Anomaly of Satellite

This parameter is used to indicate the position of the satellite in its orbit. This is done by defining the angle , called the true anomaly of the satellite, formed by the line joining the perigee and center of the earth with the line joining the satellite and the center of the earth.

Angles defining Direction of Satellite

The direction of the satellite is defined by two angles, the first by angle y between the direction of the satellite velocity vector and its projection in the local horizontal and second by Angle Az, between the north and the projection of the satellites velocity vector on the local horizontal.