What is Limestone?

Limestone is an organic, sedimentary rock.

This means it was formed from the remains of tiny

shells and micro-skeletons deposited on the sea bed. They were compressed to form solid rock.

What is limestone made up of?

Limestone is made up of calcium carbonate and

reacts with diluted hydrochloric acid. Limestone is formed in layers - called bedding planes. These bedding planes contain vertical cracks called joints. Joints and bedding planes make the rock permeable.

What is Weathering?
It is the breakdown of rock by physical, chemical or

biological processes

 Limestone areas are weathered when rainwater, which

contains a weak carbonic acid, reacts with limestone. When it rains limestone is dissolved. Rainwater erodes the joints and bedding planes. In doing this Karst scenery is created. The main processes, which affect it, are carbonation and solution.

It is a hard, grey sedimentary rock, with a large number of joints (vertical cracks) and bedding planes (horizontal cracks)

 Carboniferous limestone is an example of a pervious

rock, as it allows water to flow through the joints and bedding planes.

 Carboniferous limestone produces distinctive karst

scenery. These areas are dry on the surface due to the permeability of the rock, but have mainly been shaped by the action of water.

 The water attacks the many joints and bedding planes

in the rock, through the chemical weathering processes of carbonation and solution. There are a number of distinctive features seen in karst scenery areas, both on and beneath the surface.

Limestone cliffs or scars

are produced at the edge of the area of limestone.

Often near vertical and highly jointed.

Swallow holes and sink holes

are where rivers flow down into the rock.
Sink holes are relatively small, whilst swallow holes are larger.

Both have been formed either by the constant

chemical attack of the water on the joints in the limestone, or by the collapse of a cavern below.

Swallow Hole
The process involved in the formation of a swallow hole is

again erosion and chemical weathering. In particular, it involves the solution of the limestone as described above and the collapse of the surface limestone.
Swallow holes are also known as sink holes or sluggas. They are openings in the beds of rivers which occur when

the surface river flows over an opening and then disappears underground through this swallow hole. The river then winds its way underground through various solution channels.

 Originally the river is flowing over some form of

impermeable rock. When it reaches the exposed limestone area it flows over joints or grikes on the surface, the river may then enlarge the grike into a hole which causes it to disappear into the underground caverns and solution channels which are a feature of Karst regions. The erosion of this hole while originally caused by solution is helped by the abrasive action of the river itself.

 The previous river channel downstream from a

swallow hole is called a dry valley. The point where the river again reaches the surface is called a resurgence point. Swallow holes may be many metres in diameter and up to one hundred metres deep.

Clints and grykes

- Rainwater flowing over an impermeable surface will,

on reaching (permeable) limestone, be able to dissolve the joints into grooves called grykes, leaving blocks or clumps of limestone in between called clints

Limestone pavements
are large areas of exposed limestone.
When the overlying rock was eroded the pressure

release on the limestone below caused it to crack even more. Hence limestone pavements are characterised by large gaps between the rock, called grikes. The remaining blocks of rock are called clints.

 As already stated, limestone pavement is an

overground feature associated with Karst (limestone) regions. The process involved in its formation is essentially chemical weathering. These are flat areas of exposed surface limestone. They are broken up in large rectangular-shaped blocks called clints which are separated by long grooves known as grikes. Together they resemble something like large separate paving stones hence the name limestone pavement.

 The limestone was exposed at an earlier stage possibly

due to the action of glaciation. Exposed limestone is attacked by the chemical weathering process known as carbonation. Essentially this involves rainwater mixing with carbon dioxide in the atmosphere to form a weak carbonic acid which turns the calcium carbonate in limestone into soluble calcium bicarbonate.

 Most limestones have vertical joints or cracks on their

surface. The chemical weathering by the rainwater enlarges these joints to form the grooves known as clints. These clints run parallel to each other and separate the flat limestone surface into large slabs (grikes).

Limestone (Karst) Features - below ground

Caverns
are underground caves that have been hollowed out by

the action of underground streams and by carbonation and solution.

Caverns have THREE distinct features

Stalactites hang from the roof of the cavern, and are

basically lime deposits. Stalagmites grow from the floor, and are also lime deposits. Where a stalactite and stalagmite have joined you get a pillar.

The witchs finger

Stalactites
are formed by water seepage from the roofs of caverns

in limestone regions. The processes involved in their formation are solution and evaporation. This water that seeps through the cavern roof from above will contain plenty of calcium carbonate (limestone) in solution. Some evaporation of water will occur and this leads to deposits of calcium carbonate occurring particularly around the edge of the drops of water.

 These deposits are known as dripstone and when they

extend downwards from the roof of the cave they are specifically know as stalactites. Stalactites are icicle-shaped forms and can grow by about seven or eight millimetres per year. As the water forming these may have many impurities, the colour of the stalactite may vary in accordance with these impurities.

 A brownish colouring is often found.

When the stalactites join with similar features on the

floor of the cavern known as stalagmites they often join to form limestone pillars or limestone columns.

The stalagmite
is a type of speleothem that rises from the floor of a

limestone cave due to the dripping of mineralized solutions and the deposition of calcium carbonate. This stalagmite formation occurs only under certain pH conditions within the underground cavern. The corresponding formation on the ceiling of a cave is known as a stalactite. If these formations grow together, the result is known as a column.

 Stalagmites should normally

not be touched, since

the rock buildup is formed by minerals precipitating out of the water solution onto the old surface; skin oils can alter the surface where the mineral water will cling, thus affecting the growth of the formation. Oils and dirt from human contact can also stain the formation and change its color permanently.

Underground streams
flow down through the limestone carving out caverns,

until the y reach the impermeable layer of rock below the limestone layer. Once at this point the stream flows under the limestone until it re-emerges. This is called resurgence. When streams re-appear they are called resurgent springs.

Gorges
are created where the roof of a large underground

cavern falls in, to create a steep sided gorge with a river running in the bottom.

Dolines
are formed when the roof of a small underground cave

falls in. The ground above the cave subsides into it causing an indentation on the surface.

Dry valleys
were formed in periglacial times, when the ground

froze, so the rivers ran over the surface of the limestone rather than flowing down through it. These rivers carved out steep sided valleys. Once the climate had warmed again the rivers disappeared underground leaving a dry valley behind. These also are common features of Chalk landscapes.

Uses of a carboniferous limestone area

The tourist industry is a very important source of

income to limestone areas. Most people come to walk in the hills and see the spectacular karst sceney. The local people are cashing in on this by opening cafs, guest houses and other tourist facilities. Good example is in Barbados

As a building stone,
Limestone is an excellent building stone, and has

been used in some very well known buildings, such as the House of Parliament. Obviously this means that there are often a large number of quarries.

 Limestone, whether crushed or used as lime, can be

very useful in a number of areas. It is used as an industrial cleanser, farmers use it as fertiliser and it forms an important ingredient in cement making.