COGNITION &METACOGNITION

Group members: M . Ali M. Kamran Haider M.M.Hameed Faizi Mazhar Iqbal

Cognition

Cognition

INTRODUCTION TO COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY

1. Cognitive Psychology Defined

Cognitive Psychology
The study of how people perceive, learn, remember, and think. Examples

How people perceive various shapes Why they remember some facts and forget others How they learn language

Cognition (Ashcraft, 2002)

The collection of mental processes and activities used in perceiving, learning, remembering, thinking, and understanding, and the act of using those processes

If you wanted to understand how people think which method would you use? What would you focus on?

?
What can humans do that computers can not?

What can computers do that humans can not?

3. Research Methods in Cognitive Psychology

How does scientific investigation work?
Theory development Hypotheses formulation Hypotheses testing Data gathering Data analysis

Ecological validity

The degree to which particular findings in one context may be considered relevant outside of that context

3. Research Methods in Cognitive Psychology

1. Controlled laboratory experiments Characterization

An experimenter conducts research in a laboratory setting in which he controls as many aspects of the experimental situation as possible

Advantages
Enables isolation of causal factors Excellent means of testing hypotheses

Disadvantages

Often lack of ecological validity

3. Research Methods in Cognitive Psychology

2. Psychobiological research Characterization

Studies the relationship between cognitive performance and cerebral events and structures Examples: postmortem studies, animal studies, studies in vivo (PET, fMRI, EEG)

Advantages

hard evidence of cognitive functions by relating them to physiological activity Often very expensive; risk of making inferences about normal functions based on abnormal brain functioning

Disadvantages

3. Research Methods in Cognitive Psychology

3. Self-reports Characterization

Participants reports of own cognition in progress or as recollected Introspective insights from participants point of view, which may be unavailable via other means

Advantages

Disadvantages
Inability to report on processes occurring outside conscious awareness Data gathering may influence cognitive process being reported

3. Research Methods in Cognitive Psychology

4. Case studies Characterization

Intensive study of a single individual

Advantages
Richly detailed information about individuals, including information about historical and current contexts Very good for theory development

Disadvantages

Small sample; questionable generalization to other cases

3. Research Methods in Cognitive Psychology

5. Naturalistic observation Characterization

Observing real-life situations, as in classrooms, work settings, or homes High ecological validity Lack of experimental control

Advantages

Disadvantages

3. Research Methods in Cognitive Psychology

6. Computer Simulations and Artificial Intelligence Characterization
Simulation: Attempt to make computers simulate human cognitive performance AI: Attempt to make computers demonstrate intelligent cognitive performance (regardless of its resemblance to human cognitive processing)

Advantages

Clear testing of theoretical models and predictions Limits of hardware and software

Disadvantages

4. Key Themes in Cognitive Psychology

1. Data without a theory is meaningless, theory without data is empty Example: observation that peoples ability to recognize faces is better than their ability to recall faces

This is an interesting generalization but it does not explain why there is such a difference

A theory provides
An explanation of data Basis for prediction of other data

4. Key Themes in Cognitive Psychology

2. Cognitive processes interact with each other and with noncognitive processes Even though cognitive psychologists often try to study specific cognitive processes in isolation, they know that cognitive processes work together Examples
Memory processes depend on perceptual processes Thinking depends on memory Motivation interacts with learning

4. Key Themes in Cognitive Psychology

3. Cognition needs to be studied through a variety of scientific methods

There is no one right way to study cognition Cognitive psychologists need to learn a variety of different kinds of techniques to study cognition

4. Key Themes in Cognitive Psychology

4. Basic research in cognitive psychology may lead to application, applied research may lead to basic understanding Basic research often leads to immediate application

Example: finding that learning is superior when it is spaced out over time rather than crammed into a short time interval

Applied research often leads to basic findings

Example: eyewitness testimony research has enhanced our basic understanding of memory systems and of the extent to which humans construct their own memories

Cognitive Development:

Believed that intelligence was not random, but was a set of organized cognitive structures that the infant actively constructed

This construction occurs through the adaptation to the environment

Stages of Development
The development of qualitatively different cognitive structures occurred through the processes of assimilation and accommodation.

When a qualitative change occurs, the infant/child enters a new stage of development

Stage 1: Sensori-Motor (Birth-Age 2)

Intellectual functioning is organized around sensing information and performing actions accordingly.

This is entirely unconscious, self-unaware, and non-symbolic cognition. 6 substages of development

Sensori-Motor Substage 1: Reflexes (0-1 month)

Reflexes are the behavioural foundation upon which more complex behaviours are based Development occurs as the reflex behaviours are applied to a wider variety of stimuli and events (assimilation)

Example: Sucking

Sensori-Motor Substage 1: Reflexes (0-1 month)

With continued experience, the reflexive behaviours become modified (accommodation) The infant then enters the second substage

Sensori-Motor Substage 2: Schemes (1-4 months)

Sensori-Motor Schemes:
An

organized pattern of action (or behaviour) with which the infant interacts and comes to know the world. Sucking and Grasping

Examples:

Sensori-Motor Substage 2: Schemes (1-4 months)

Coordination or integration of previously independent schemes

For

example, the coordination of sensory

information, such as visual and auditory

Sensori-Motor Substage 2: Schemes (1-4 months)

Walker & Gibson (1983)

3.5 Months

Sensori-Motor Substage 3: Procedures (4-8 months)

According to Piaget, substage 2 schemes are directed inward

That

is, grasps for the sake of its grasping than on the effect it has on the world

In this substage, schemes get directed outward

Sensori-Motor Substage 3: Procedures (4-8 months)

The schemes develop into procedures of interesting actions that produce interesting effects in the world

For example, banging on a pot with a wooden spoon

Consequently, the procedure gets repeated

Sounds like operant learning - infants do this at 2 mos.

Sensori-Motor Substage 4: Intentional Behaviour (8-12 mos) In previous substage, infant accidentally
produces some outcome then repeats it
In this substage, infant wants to produce a particular outcome then figures out the action
Uses

one scheme as a means to obtain its goal or end of exercising another scheme

Sensori-Motor Substage 5: Experimentation (12-18 mos)

Trial-and-error exploration of the world to find new and different ways of acting on it.

Before this substage, the infant produces known actions that will produce mostly known outcomes

Sensori-Motor Substage 5: Experimentation (12-18 mos) Here the infant produces new actions and
observes the effects
Example, pulling the rug to get an out-of-reach object Perhaps, the precursor of tool use

Sensori-Motor Substage 6: Representation (18-24 mos)

Before this substage, all actions, objects and outcomes occur externally

In this substage, the infant begins to think about and acting on the world internally

Example:

Sensori-Motor Substage 6: Representation (18-24 mos)

Naming an object that is not currently present but is just thought of.

Deferred Imitation
Infant witnesses an action but does not reproduce it Reproduces the witnessed action at a later time

Pretend or Symbolic Play

Object Permanence

Understanding that objects exist independent of our ability to perceive them In substage 4, infants can search for hidden objects Limitations in this ability: A-not-B Task

Object Permanence

Understanding that objects exist independent of our ability to perceive them In substage 4, infants can search for hidden objects Limitations in this ability: A-not-B Task

Object Permanence

Understanding that objects exist independent of our ability to perceive them In substage 4, infants can search for hidden objects Limitations in this ability: A-not-B Task

Object Permanence

Understanding that objects exist independent of our ability to perceive them In substage 4, infants can search for hidden objects Limitations in this ability: A-not-B Task

A-not-B Task

Infant seems to understand the permanence of the object only in relation to their own action

Can handle this task by substage 5, but only if the object is visible when moved Waits until substage 6 until infant can handle this task with invisible displacements

Recent Work on Cognition during Sensori-Motor Stage

Object Permanence

Baillargeon (1987) Found that not until 4.5 months of age (substage 3) did infants increase attention to the impossible event

Stage 2: Pre-operational (2-6 yrs)

Limitations

Egocentrism: All representation of the world is from ones own perspective

- Centration: Focuses on only one aspect of a problem at a time - Animism: Thinks that inanimate objects have qualities of living things

Stage 3: Concrete Operational (6-12 yrs)

Child is more logical and able to complete task not able to in Pre-Operation period.

Thinking is still with real or concrete objects and actions, and not yet abstract thinking

Conservation of Number is mastered by age 6 Conservation of Length & Weight is mastered by age 8 or 9 Class Inclusion - A subclass cannot be larger than the superordinate class that includes it

Class Inclusion

11 circles: 8 white and 3 yellow Ask child where there are more circles or more which items Pre-Operational:

Class Inclusion

11 circles: 8 white and 3 yellow Ask child where there are more circles or more which items Concrete Operational:

Stage 3: Concrete Operational (6-12 yrs)

Relations between classes

Seriation - ordering Transitivity - Tell infant, A is bigger than B and B is bigger than C. Then ask what is the relation between A and C

A
B

B
C

Stage 3: Concrete Operational (6-12 yrs)

Infants and Children may be more competent than proposed

For example, Number

Stage 4: Formal Operational

The ability to think logically about things that are only possible and not necessarily real (or concrete) -- abstract thinking Hypothetical-deductive reasoning
Not everyone reaches this stage:

Studies have indictated that science and math students better at this

What is Cognitive Psychology?

Cognitive psychology is the study of mental processes

What is Cognitive Psychology?

Cognitive Psychology versus Behaviorism

Behavioral

Psych: how S maps onto R Cognitive Psych: what happens in the mind Both can use formulas to map S onto R The difference is level of complexity

S Environment R Mind

What is Cognitive Psychology?

Cognitive Psychology versus Neurobiology

Neurobiology:

how does the brain do it? Cognitive Psych: how does the mind do it? Both can use neurons to describe mind The difference is behavior (the big picture)

What is Cognitive Psychology?

Metaphor: mind = Windows

Behaviorists:

What happens when I press Alt-Tab? Cool! It switched to my last open application!! But how does that work? Check this out, the harddrive and the RAM are both connected to the motherboard! But what does that mean? Pressing Alt-Tab switches me between applications, and I know that Windows uses STM Lets propose a model of Windows where it stores which apps are open in STM, and when a user hits Alt-Tab, it switches between open apps.

Neurobiologists:

Cognitive Psychologists:

What is Cognitive Psychology?

Cognitive Psychology versus Artificial Intelligence (AI)

AI: whats the best way to do this? Cognitive Psych: how do humans do this? Both try to model some form of mind The difference is fidelity Brain is optimal: If AI truly wants to find optimality they should study Cognitive Psychology.

Why study Cognitive Psychology

Understanding the mind Education Medicine Therapy Artificial Intelligence Tool/Interface Design Gaming/Entertainment Etc.

What is involved in Cognition

The book lists:

Perception, Attention, Memory, Problem-Solving, Language, Reasoning, & Decision-making

This is not a comprehensive list of mental processes These processes are not independent of one another

E.g. attention may be part of perception; language may be part of memory and decision-making, etc.

COMPLEXITY OF COGNITION

Figure 1.1 (p. 3) - Complexity of Cognition

Sarah is walking toward her friend, who is waving in the distance. She is aware of her friend, but has little awareness of the stranger who is passing on her right, even though he is much closer.

What we are aware of

The complexities of cognition are usually hidden from our consciousness.

The Magic of Cognition

In our lives we are likely to NEVER encounter the same retinal input twice! EVER!
We

will learn about categorization and invariant representation

The Magic of Cognition

The Stroop effect

We

have automatic reading routines It is hard to stop well-practiced routines from executing This is the difference between experts and novices

Complexity of Perception; Expectations

Figure 1.5 (p 8) - Hemholtzs unconcious inference

The display in (a) looks like (b) a gray rectangle in front of a light triangle; but it could be (c) a gray rectangle and a six-sided figure that are lined up appropriately.

The Magic of Cognition

These types of phenomena give us a hint as to how cognition works

E.g. Do you process all of the information that falls on your retina?

It may be that we have a perfect representation of the world It may be that we make gross estimations based on prior experience DEMO

THINK CRITICALLY

Think Critically

Beware cognitive myths

We

only use 10% of our brain Group brainstorming Left vs right hemisphere
Left

is an accountant, right is a hippie

Phrenology

Think Critically

Beware vacuous Statements

the

Stroop effect shows that some stimuli can affect our behavior by forcing themselves on our consciousness, even if we are actively trying to ignore them.

Think Critically

Beware old theories

E.g.

Chomskys Poverty of Stimulus argument has been rebuked recently; Perfors, Tenenbaum, & Regier (2006) have shown that with the right approach it is possible to retrieve grammar rules from the data available to children

Think Critically

Correlation does not imply causation

100%

of people who eat pickles die Therefore, eating pickles is bad for you

Think Critically

Davachi [states that] memory is better if the perirhinal cortex is activated when the word is being learned

Does this mean that Perirhinal cortex is involved in memory?

Everything is involved in memory Not necessarily. It could be activated during the place task for any number of reasons

Is it involved in associative learning?

Maybe Ss found it amusing to place words, and the perirhinal cortex is actually the amusement center; maybe being amused correlates with better memory

Think Critically

Cognition is far from being solved

Ask

questions Use your intuition Do thought experiments Use multiple sources of information Think for yourselves
How

would you design the mind?

On the brighter side

This is a young field, but we understand a lot about cognition already At this point we are already able to predict
Learning curves for procedural and declarative memories How forgetting works (interference and decay) How some memories can prime other memories How cognitive mechanisms interact And much much more

Metacognition

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METACOGNITION
Helping students to self-regulate

September 15, 2013

Play with different combinations of these words and you'll be forming mental pictures of metacognition.
Thinking about knowing ... Learning about thinking ... Control of learning ... Knowing about knowing ... Thinking about thinking ...

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Metacognition

September 15, 2013

Its like arguing with yourself.

- Scott (11/09)

72

Metacognition

September 15, 2013

Metacognition = Argumentation turn inward.

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Metacognition

September 15, 2013

Definitions
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Metacognition - literally beyond knowing, knowing what one knows and doesnt know promoting a students ability to self-monitor levels of understanding and predict how well (s)he will do on a particular task. Self-regulation - students monitoring their own comprehension and assessing their own abilities without teacher help.

Metacognition

September 15, 2013

Metacognition

Thinking about thinking

(Blakely, 1990; Livingston, 1997)

Flavell (1977)
Child

cognition Developmental changes in

Metamemory Metacomprehension

Metacommunication

Metacognition

Knowledge and active control over ones own cognitive processes when engaged in learning
metacognitive

knowledge metacognitive regulation

Metacognitive Knowledge
Knowledge

about human learning and information

processing Knowledge about the learning task at hand and its corresponding processing demands Knowledge about cognitive and metacognitive strategies and their appropriate use

Metacognitive Regulation
processes

that can be applied in order to control cognitive activities and achieve cognitive goals planning and monitoring cognitive activities and further revision depending on the result of these activities

Elements of Metacognition

Metamemory
Knowledge

about memory systems and memory

strategies

Metacomprehension
Learners

awareness about what he/she knows / does not know

Elements of Metacognition

Self-regulation
Learners

adjustment to errors Covers social interaction

Schema Training
Helps

learners to develop their own cognitive structures from understanding information and experiences

Metacognition

Students perception of themselves has an impact of their performance, achievements and selfmanagement of their own learning. Metacognition influences the students orientation to learning tasks and problem solving. Performing the task or solving the problem influences their belief in their personal and academic abilities, therefore metacognition allows students to believe in themselves.

Metacognitive Strategies

Blakely & Spence (1990)

Connecting

new information to former knowledge Selecting thinking strategies deliberately Planning, monitoring and evaluating thinking processes

Utilising these strategies a learner can identify a problem,

research alternative solutions, evaluate and decide on a final solution.

Metacognitive Strategies

Macpherson (2002)
Metacognitive

explanation Scaffolded instruction Cognitive choaching Head-to-hands Co-operative learning

Metacognitive Explanation

Involves the teacher

Talking

through the problem, start to ask the student for suggestions the process of solving a problem

Thinking aloud
Observing

Scaffolded Instruction

Exploring problems with little help from the teacher Teachers role is to support Teacher should intervene if the student is experiencing difficulties
What do you think would happen if? How can you check to see if you are correct or not?

Cognitive Choaching

Teacher prompts student from solution Students are encouraged to explain what he/she did to the other students On-going assessment of students performance Students are challenged to achieve new goals with different levels of difficulty

Co-operative Learning

Utilises the social aspect of learning Breaking the class into pairs or small groups

Head-to-Hands

Carry out a practical application Manipulate and test learning Helps students maintain motivation towards their learning

A Distributed View of Metacognition

Managing ressources
Processes

involved in internal cognitive

functioning Objects and processes in ones immediate environment

A Distributed View of Metacognition 5 tenets

1.

2.

The complexity of deciding what to do next is made considerably less complex than the general problem of rational choice. Humans lean on environmental structure for cognitive support.

A Distributed View of Metacognition 5 tenets

3.

4.

5.

We are closely coupled causally with our environments that cognition is effectively distributed over mind and environment. Our close causal coupling holds true at different temporal levels. Learners are coordinators locked in a system.

A Distributed View of Metacognition

For students operating in well designed environments the activity of maintaining coordination, of monitoring, repairing, and deciding what to do next may not be a fully concious process, and certainly need not require attention to ones current internal thinking process.

A Distributed View of Metacognition

Cognition is distributed between agent and environment When there is conscious awareness of mental activity, the aspect of cognition being attended to may be the externalisation of that thought.

Cognitively Effective Design

Principles of good pedagogy

Providing

cues, prompts, hints, indicators and reminders The manner of displaying them has an effect on how and when students notice them.

Cognitively Effective Design

The effectiveness of a structure or process measures the probability that subjects will comprehend, perceive, extract the meaning, or use the structure correctly. a) use the interface, hence not reject it outright as being too complex to be useful b) use the display to obtain the result the users want because the display makes it easier to understand the options and their relations better

Thank You For Your Attention