10-1

Quality Control

Operations Management

William J. Stevenson

8th edition

10-2

Quality Control

CHAPTER

10

Quality Control

McGraw-Hill/Irwin

Operations Management, Eighth Edition, by William J. Stevenson Copyright 2005 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

10-3

Quality Control

Phases of Quality Assurance

Figure 10.1
Inspection and corrective action during production
Process control

Inspection before/after production

Acceptance sampling

Quality built into the process

Continuous improvement

The least progressive

The most progressive

10-4

Quality Control

Inspection

Figure 10.2

How Much/How Often Where/When Centralized vs. On-site

Inputs Transformation Outputs

Acceptance sampling

Process control

Acceptance sampling

10-5

Quality Control

Inspection Costs

Figure 10.3

Cost

Total Cost

Cost of inspection

Cost of passing defectives

Optimal Amount of Inspection

10-6

Quality Control

Where to Inspect in the Process

Raw materials and purchased parts Finished products Before a costly operation Before an irreversible process Before a covering process

10-7

Quality Control

Examples of Inspection Points

Characteristics Accuracy Appearance, productivity Cleanliness Appearance Health regulations Safe, well lighted Accuracy, timeliness Appearance, safety Waiting times Accuracy, courtesy Quality, quantity

Table 10.1
Type of business Fast Food Inspection points Cashier Counter area Eating area Building Kitchen Hotel/motel Parking lot Accounting Building Main desk Supermarket Cashiers Deliveries

10-8

Quality Control

Statistical Process Control:

Statistical evaluation of the output of a process during production

Quality of Conformance: A product or service conforms to specifications

10-9

Quality Control

Control Chart

Control Chart

Purpose: to monitor process output to see if it is random

A time ordered plot representative sample statistics obtained from an on going process (e.g. sample means)
Upper and lower control limits define the range of acceptable variation

10-10

Quality Control

Control Chart
Out of control

Figure 10.4
Abnormal variation due to assignable sources

UCL
Mean Normal variation due to chance Abnormal variation due to assignable sources

LCL

10 11 12 13 14 15

Sample number

10-11

Quality Control

Statistical Process Control

The essence of statistical process control is to assure that the output of a process is random so that future output will be random.

10-12

Quality Control

Statistical Process Control

The Control Process

Define Measure Compare Evaluate Correct Monitor results

10-13

Quality Control

Statistical Process Control

Variations and Control

Random variation: Natural variations in the output of a process, created by countless minor factors Assignable variation: A variation whose source can be identified

10-14

Quality Control

Sampling Distribution
Sampling distribution Process distribution

Figure 10.5

Mean

10-15

Quality Control

Normal Distribution

Figure 10.6

Standard deviation

Mean 95.44% 99.74%

10-16

Quality Control

Control Limits
Sampling distribution Process distribution

Figure 10.7

Mean Lower control limit Upper control limit

10-17

Quality Control

Control Charts for Variables

Variables generate data that are measured.

Mean control charts

Used to monitor the central tendency of a process.

X bar charts

Range control charts

Used to monitor the process dispersion

R charts

10-18

Quality Control

Mean and Range Charts

(process mean is shifting upward)

Figure 10.10A

Sampling Distribution

UCL

x-Chart
LCL

Detects shift

UCL

R-chart
LCL

Does not detect shift

10-19

Quality Control

Mean and Range Charts

Figure 10.10B

Sampling Distribution

(process variability is increasing)

UCL

x-Chart
LCL

Does not reveal increase

UCL

R-chart
LCL

Reveals increase

10-20

Quality Control

Control Chart for Attributes

p-Chart - Control chart used to monitor the proportion of defectives in a process

c-Chart - Control chart used to monitor the number of defects per unit

Attributes generate data that are counted.

10-21

Quality Control

Use of p-Charts

Table 10.3

When observations can be placed into two categories.

Good or bad
Pass or fail Operate or dont operate

When the data consists of multiple samples of several observations each

10-22

Quality Control

Use of c-Charts

Table 10.3

Use only when the number of occurrences per unit of measure can be counted; nonoccurrences cannot be counted.

Scratches, chips, dents, or errors per item Cracks or faults per unit of distance Breaks or Tears per unit of area Bacteria or pollutants per unit of volume Calls, complaints, failures per unit of time

10-23

Quality Control

Use of Control Charts

At what point in the process to use control charts

What size samples to take What type of control chart to use

Variables

Attributes

10-24

Quality Control

Process Capability

Tolerances or specifications

Range of acceptable values established by engineering design or customer requirements

Process variability

Natural variability in a process

Process capability

Process variability relative to specification

10-25

Quality Control

Process Capability
Upper Specification

Figure 10.15
Lower Specification

A. Process variability matches specifications

Lower Specification Upper Specification

B. Process variability Lower Upper well within specifications Specification Specification

C. Process variability exceeds specifications

10-26

Quality Control

Process Capability Ratio

specification width Process capability ratio, Cp = process width Cp = Upper specification lower specification 6

10-27

Quality Control

3 Sigma and 6 Sigma Quality

Upper specification
1350 ppm 1.7 ppm

Lower specification
1350 ppm 1.7 ppm

Process mean +/- 3 Sigma +/- 6 Sigma

10-28

Quality Control

Improving Process Capability

Simplify Standardize Mistake-proof Upgrade equipment Automate

10-29

Quality Control

Limitations of Capability Indexes

Process may not be stable
Process output may not be normally distributed Process not centered but Cp is used

1.
2.

3.

10-30

Quality Control

CHAPTER

10

Additional PowerPoint slides contributed by Geoff Willis, University of Central Oklahoma.

10-31

Quality Control

Control Charts in General

Are named according to the statistics being plotted, i.e., X bar, R, p, and c Have a center line that is the overall average Have limits above and below the center line at 3 standard deviations (usually)
Upper Control Limit (UCL)

Center line
Lower Control Limit (LCL)

10-32

Quality Control

Variables Data Charts

Process Centering

X bar chart X bar is a sample mean

X
i 1

Process Dispersion (consistency)

R chart R is a sample range

R max( X i ) min( X i )

10-33

Quality Control

X bar charts

Center line is the grand mean (X double bar) m Points are X bars

x / n
UCL X z x
-OR-

X
j 1

LCL X z x

UCL X A2 R

LCL X A2 R

10-34

Quality Control

R Charts

Center line is the grand mean (R bar) Points are R D3 and D4 values are tabled according to n (sample size)
UCL D4 R

LCL D3 R

10-35

Quality Control

Use of X bar & R charts

Charts are always used in tandem Data are collected (20-25 samples) Sample statistics are computed All data are plotted on the 2 charts Charts are examined for randomness If random, then limits are used forever

10-36

Quality Control

Attribute Charts

c charts used to count defects in a constant sample size

c
i 1

UCL c z c

centerline

LCL c z c

10-37

Quality Control

Attribute Charts

p charts used to track a proportion (fraction) defective

pi

x
i 1

p
j 1

x
ij

nm

centerline

p (1 p ) UCL p z n

p (1 p ) LCL p z n

10-38

Quality Control

Process Capability

The ratio of process variability to design specifications

Natural data Text spread

Text

Text

Text

Text

Text

-3

-2 -1
Lower

Title

+1 +2 +3
Upper

The natural spread of the data is 6

Spec

Spec

10-39

Quality Control

Training

MQ4 Job rotation/quality fatigue at Honda

10-40

Quality Control

Quality Measurement

STA10 Monitoring

10-41

Quality Control

Services/Measurement

STAO3 Survey/Efficiency, Admission/Discharge