Chapter 2 Current and Voltage

ECET 1010 Fundamentals

2.1 Atoms and Their Structure

Need to understand atoms and their structure to understand concepts of current and voltage

Atoms and Their Structure

Simplest Atom Hydrogen

Proton

Positive charge Radius ~ 2 x 10-15 m (dime) Negative charge Radius ~ 2 x 10-15 m Orbit ~ 5 x 10-11 m (1/4 mile)
4

Electron

Helium

Two protons and two electrons Two neutrons

No charge Slightly heavier than protons NOT contained in hydrogen Contained in ALL other elements

In all neutral atoms the number of electrons is equal to the number of protons.
5

Mass

Electron 9.11 x 10-28 g Proton 1.672 x 10-24 g Neutron 1.672 x 10-24 g Protons and neutrons have about 2,000 times the mass of electrons Radius is on the order of 2 x 10-15 m

Shells and Subshells of the Atomic Structure

Atomic Shells
Shell 1st 2nd 3rd 4th nth Identifier k l m n Number of Electrons 2 8 18 32 2n2
8

Atomic Subshells
Subshell s p d Number of Electrons 2 6 10

14
9

Coulombs Law

Charles Augustin de Coulomb (17361806) Unlike charges attract Like charges repel Force of attraction (repulsion) between two bodies given as: F = k Q1 Q2 / r2
10

Coulombs Law

F is the force of attraction (repulsion) in Newtons k is a constant, 9.0 X 109 Nm2/C2 Q1, Q2 charges in Coulombs, C r distance between two charges in meters

11

Removing Electrons

Easier to remove electron from outer subshell than inner subshell Electrons easier to remove from subshells that are incomplete AND have few electrons

12

Copper

Most commonly used metal in electrical/electronic industry 29th electron loosely bound

Distance to nucleus Only electron in shell Incomplete shell Easy to become free electron

In 1 in3 of copper at room temperature there are 1.4 x 1024 free electrons
13

Other Metals With Same Property

Silver 47 Gold 79 Aluminum 13 Tungsten 74

Okay, but what keeps a nucleus together?

14

The Strong Nuclear Force and Binding Energy

Google: What keeps the nucleus of an atom together?

http://theory.uwinnipeg.ca/mod_tech/node178.html

15

2.2 Current

Cross Section of Copper Wire

Random motion of free electrons at room temperature with no external forces applied Positive ions created when an atom loses its free electron Free electrons move about Positive ions oscillate about a fixed position
17

Charge Carrier

The free electron is the charge carrier in a copper wire or any other solid conductor of electricity Free electrons are constantly gaining and losing energy through:

Changes in position Collisions with other electrons and positive ions

Attractive forces of positive ions Force of repulsion from other electrons

18

Flow of Charge

With no external forces applied, the net flow of charge in a conductor in any one direction is zero Connecting a battery and light bulb creates a simple electrical circuit Chemical energy in battery puts positive charge at one terminal and negative charge at other Free electrons travel from negative terminal (supply) to positive terminal Analogous to water hose 19

Ampere

If 6.242 x 1018 electrons drift at a uniform velocity through an imaginary cross section in 1 second, the flow of charge, or current, is said to be 1 Ampere Andr Marie Ampre (1775-1836)

20

Charge per Electron

1 Coulomb is the charge associated with 6.242 x 1018 electrons Charge per electron is determined as: 1 / 6.242 x 1018 = 1.602 x 10-19 C

21

Calculating Current
I=Q/t

I = current in Amperes (A) Q = charge in Coulombs (C) t = time in seconds (s)

This equation may be solved for Q and t

22

Example 2.1
The charge flowing through an imaginary surface is 0.16 C every 64 ms. Determine the current in Amperes. I=Q/t = 0.16 C / 64 x 10-3s = 2.50 A
23

Example 2.2
Determine the time required for 4 x 1016 electrons to pass through an imaginary surface if the current is 5 mA.
Q = 4 x 1016 electrons / 6.242 x 1018 electrons/C = 6.41 x 10-3 C
t=Q/I = 6.41 x 10-3 C / 5 x 10-3 A =1.282 s
24

Conventional Flow versus Electron Flow

Safety Considerations

Even small levels of current can cause serious side effects to the human body Any current over 10 mA should be considered dangerous Currents of 50 mA can cause severe shock Currents over 100 mA can be fatal Resistance of dry skin is high enough to limit current through body to safe levels

Water (or other liquids) and electricity do not mix!

26

2.3 Voltage

Potential energy Notation Terminology

27

Potential Energy

Energy is defined by the capacity to do work w = mgh

w potential energy (J) m mass g gravitational acceleration, 9.8 m/s2 h height (m)
28

Potential Difference

Potential Difference

A potential difference of 1 volt (V) exists between two points if 1 Joule (J) of energy is exchanged in moving 1 Coulomb (C) of charge between two points A potential difference or voltage is always measured between two points in a system Changing either point may change the potential difference between the two points under investigation
30

Potential Difference
V=w/Q V potential difference in volts w work in Joules Q charge in Coulombs

31

Example 2.3
Find the potential difference between two points in an electrical system if 60 J of energy are expended by a charge of 20 C between two points. V=w/Q = 60 J / 20 C =3V
32

Example 2.4
Determine the energy expended moving a charge of 50 C through a potential difference of 6 V. w=V*Q = 6 V * 50 * 10-6 C = 300 * 10-6 J = 300 J
33

Notation

E for voltage sources (volts) V for voltage drops (volts)

34

Terminology

Potential

The voltage at a point with respect to another point in the electrical system. Typically the reference point is ground, which is at zero potential. The algebraic difference in potential (or voltage) between two points of a network. When isolated, like potential, the voltage at a point with respect to some reference such as ground (0 V).

Potential difference

Voltage

35

Terminology

Voltage difference

The algebraic difference in voltage (or potential) between two points of the system. A voltage drop or rise is as the terminology would suggest. The force that establishes the flow of charge (or current) in a system due to the application of a difference in potential. This term in not applied that often in todays literature, but is associated primarily with sources of energy.
36

Electromotive force (emf)

2.4 Fixed (dc) Supplies

dc Voltage Sources dc Current Sources

37

dc Voltage Sources

Symbol for a dc voltage source dc stands for direct current Unidirectional flow of charge Categories of sources

Batteries (chemical action) Generators (electro mechanical) Power supplies (rectification)

38

Batteries

Batteries

Alkaline and lithium-iodine primary cells Lead-acid secondary cell Nickel-cadmium secondary cell Nickel-hydrogen and nickel-metal hydride secondary cells Solar cell

40

Ampere-Hour Rating

Life (hrs) = Ampere-Hour Rating (A-hrs) Amperes Drawn (A)

41

Ampere-Hour Rating

Factors that affect the life (hours):

Temperature Rate of discharge

The capacity of a dc battery decreases with an increase in current demand. The capacity of a dc battery decreases at relatively (compared to room temperature) low and high temperatures. The terminal voltage of a dc battery decreases with the length of the discharge time at a particular drain current.

42

Example
Determine the capacity in Ampere-hours and life in minutes for an Energizer D cell if the discharge current is 450 mA. Life = 10.75 A-hr / 450 mA = 23.889 hr = 1,433.333 min

43

Example
At what temperature will the A-hr rating of this cell be 90%? 90% (18.2 A-hr) = 16.38 A-hr 40F (4.444C) 110F (43.333C)

44

Generators

Applied torque of some external source of mechanical power Terminal voltage usually 120 V or 240 V

45

Power Supplies

Rectification or filtering Typically three output levels

Above ground, e.g., 10 V At ground, 0 V Below ground, e.g., -15 V

46

dc Current Sources

Note: dc voltage sources (ideally) provide a constant level of voltage over time. dc current sources provide a constant level of current over time. The current source will supply, ideally, a fixed current to an electrical/electronic system even though there may be variations in the terminal voltage as determined by the system.
47