f

A19.12 Example problem:

The wing section in fig A19.23 is subjected to a design
bending moment about X-axis of 5,00,000 in lb, acting in a
direction to put the upper portion in compression

The problem is to determine the margin of safety for this
design bending moment

The material is 2024 aluminum alloy

f
Solution:

The beam formula for bending stress at any point on the
cross section will be used






. 1
Ultimatestrengthof member
Thems
Actual stress developed inthemember at designload
| |
=
|
\ .
x
b
x
M
Z
I
| |
o =
|
\ .
f
Solution:
The ultimate strengths of Z stringers (2,3,4) and
corner member (1,5) have to be obtained from test

Actual stress (in this case bending compressive
stress) will be determined using the beam formula


b
M
Z
I
| |
o =
|
\ .
f



M
x
= 5,00,000 in lb (the given design bending moment)

I
x
= moment of inertia about the neutral X-axis to be
determined based not on the geometrical areas of the
cross section but on the effective area that carries
bending load at failure

Z = distance from the neutral axis to the point at which o
b
is
to be computed. This requires the location of the N.A to
be determined
x
b
x
M
Z
I
| |
o =
|
\ .
f



We need to determine I
x
and Z which require the determination of
location of N.A based on the effective area of the cross section

The section in Fig A19.23 is geometrically symmetrical about the X-axis

However the effective area taking compressive load is different (less)
than the effective area taking tensile bending stress

That is why the effective cross section area is not symmetrical about
the centroidal X-axis

x
b
x
M
Z
I
| |
o =
|
\ .
f
We need to estimate

1)




2)


in order to obtain the effective area in compression, 2W, the effective
width of the skin to be attached to the flange members at the rivet
lines requires the knowledge of o
st
= the corresponding stringer stress

We will use the failure stress of stringer = o
st
to compute 2W

Therefore we need to know the failure strength of the given Zee
stringer in fig below

1/ 2
2 1.9
st
E
W t
| |
=
|
o
\ .
failurestress of stringers
Stringer effectiveness factor
Maximumstress oncorner members
| |
=
|
\ .
f
Similarly for the stringer effectiveness factor we need to know, in addition,
the crippling failure stress of the corner members

These two failure stresses can be obtained through test

For simplicity, we will assume these values to solve our problem of fig
A19.23 with M
x
= 5,00,000 in lb

We assume:

Failure stress of corner members = 47,000 psi (e = 0.006)

Failure stress of stringers = 38,000 psi (e = 0.006)
f
The effective width, 2W, at each rivet line




The effective skin area = 2 W.t = 1.25 0.04 = 0.05 in
2

The area of Zee stringers = 0.135 in
2

The area of effective skin = 0.05 in
2


The effective stringer area = 0.185 in
2

1
6
2
10.5 10
2 1.9 0.04 1.25
38, 000
W inches
| |

= =
|
\ .
f
This area = 0.185 in
2
is entered in column 2 of Table A19.1
opposite zee stringers numbered 2,3 and 4 in fig A19.17

A similar calculation leads to the effective area of corner
members (1) and (5) = 0.370 in
2
. This value is entered in
col-2 opposite stiffener number 1 and 5


f
On the bottom side which is in tension all
material is effective in carrying tensile stress.
(The skin, the stringers and the corner
members)

Thus the effective width of the skin
= stringer spacing = 6 in

Therefore the effective skin area
= 6 x 0.035 = 0.21 in
2


the area of the stringers 7,8,9
= 0.11 in
2


Thus the effective area of the stringers
(7,8,9) = .21+.11 = 0.32 in
2


Thus the value of 0.32 is entered opposite
stringer numbers
7, 8 and 9 in col-2 of Table A19.1

Similarly of effective areas of corner
members 6 and 10 = 0.417 in
2

This is shown in col-2 of Table A19.1

f
The next step is to correct the cross
sectional area for stringer effectiveness in
compression

The failing stress of stringers = 38,000 psi

The failing stress of corner members
= 47,000 psi

the stringer effectiveness factor


This factor is only applicable to stringer 2,3,
and 4

For 1 and 5 on top and all stiffeners 6 to 10
at the bottom this factor = 1

These effectiveness factors are shown in
col-3 of table A19.1
38000
0.808
47000
| |
= =
|
\ .
f
Column (4) gives the effective areas by
multiplying col-2 and col-3 entries

This gives the distribution of discrete areas
which takes bending stresses around the
cross-section

Col-5 gives Z the distance from the
centerline X-axis to the centroid of stiffeners

Col-6 gives the moment (AZ) of the effective
area about the centroidal X-axis

From these the location of N.A can be
determined



where is the distance of the N.A from the
assumed centroidal X-axis

The N.A is -0.97 inch below the centroidal X-
axis

' 2.897
0.97
2.981
AZ
Z in
A
E
= = =
E
Z
f
To calculate the moment of
inertia of the stiffener areas
about the N.A, We need the
distance (Z) from the N.A to the
stiffener centroids

Z = Z-

Col-7 shows the Z values in
Table A19.1

Values of AZ
2
= col 4 x col 7 are
given in col 8.

The sum EAZ
2
= I
x
as shown in
the last row of the table.

I
x
= 59.80 in
4

Z
f


M
x
= 5,00,000 in lb, I
x
= 59.80 in
4
and Z values are in col-7 table
A19.1

The compressive stress at the
centroid of the zee stringers:



The corner member compressive
stress


x
b
x
M
Z
I
| |
o =
|
\ .
500000
5.57 46, 600
59.80
x
b
x
M
Z psi
I
| |
o = = =
|
\ .
500000
5.47 45, 000
59.80
b
psi o = =
f


o
b stringer
= 46,600 psi Z = 5.57

o
b corner member
= 45,000 Z = 5.47

As was pointed out earlier the beam equation can predict
one single value. The small difference that we see here is
due to the small differences in Z-values.

The failure stress of corner members = 47,000 psi and at
the design bending moment of 5,00,000 in lb the stresses
developed = 45,000 psi as predicted by the beam formula
x
b
x
M
Z
I
| |
o =
|
\ .
f
The non-linearity in o-c due to skin and
stringer buckling has been accounted for
through the concept of effective area


f
In spite of this the beam formula predicts the
stringer stress to be 46,000 when we know
that its failure stress is only 38,000 psi

The beam formula cannot predict the true
stress developed in the stringer

f
However the true stringer stress is obtained as:
true stringer stress = (beam formula stringer
stress) x (stringer
effectiveness factor)

= 46,600 x 0.808 = 37,400 psi
True stringer stress = 37,400 psi





f

47, 000
1 2%
45, 000
(
= m.s.=
for corner members)
38, 000
1 1%
37, 400
( )
=
For stringers
m.s =
The wing section in fig A19.23 is subjected to a design
bending moment about X-axis of 5,00,000 in lb, acting in a
direction to put the upper portion in compression

The problem is to determine the margin of safety for this
design bending moment

The material is 2024 aluminum alloy
f
These m.s show that fig A19.23 is an efficient
design for the design B.M of 5,00,000 in lb
47, 000
1 2%
45, 000
(
= m.s.=
for corner members)
38, 000
1 1%
37, 400
( )
=
For stringers
m.s =
f
The wing design as a beam is based on the
concept that a beam section will develop the
highest internal bending moment resistance when
the compressive stress in the corner members
reaches its crippling failure stress

Through the concept of effective areas, the linear
theory based beam formula predicts accurately the
stress developed in the compressive corner
members

It fails to predict the compressive stress on the
stringers. But the true stringer compressive stress
in obtained by multiplying the beam formula stress
with stringer effectiveness factor
f
Now suppose we would have omitted consideration
of the stringer effectiveness factor and omitted col-
3 of table A19.1. Carrying through the calculations
we would have got









f











( )
0.76" 63.08, 5.36
500, 000
5.36 42, 500
63.08
38, 000
. . 1 10.5%
42, 500
X
b stringer
Z I Z for stringer
psi
ms
= = =
o = =
= =
x
b
x
M
Z
I
| |
o =
|
\ .
The stringers would have been declared as unsafe
f
This example amply demonstrates that
failure of real aircraft stiffened skin structures
occurs under non-linear o-c conditions and
the linear elastic theory must be modified to
fairly accurately estimate the failing strength

Boeing Wing
failure video
f
Bending and shearing stress analysis of tapered,
multi-stringer cantilever wing:

unsymmetrical beam method

In general cantilever wings are tapered in both
depth and planform



f

Fig A19.24 illustrates a
typical structural layout
of the outer wing panel
of a small airplane


f
f
f
The structure consists of a
front and rear spar with
span wise stringers
between the two spars

Tapering of the cross
sectional material is
obtained by decreasing
size of members by cutting
off portions of span wise
stringers and corner
flanges and decreasing the
skin and web thicknesses

f
f
f
The load analysis of a wing would estimate
the resulting bending moment, shearing
forces and torsional moment for a number of
spanwise stations for critical design load
conditions



f
The stress analysis of this wing
would show the resulting bending
and shearing stresses for a number
of spanwise stations for critical
design load conditions



f
In this example solution, the bending longitudinal
stresses will be determined on cross sections at two
stations namely stations 20 and stations 47.5 and
the shear stresses at station-20



f
In this example problem, the leading edge cell will
be considered ineffective as well as any structure to
the rear of the rear spar

Hence the structure is a single cell with multiple
stringers

A second solution including the leading edge cell to
form a two cell beam will also be presented


f
Analysis for bending longitudinal stresses

Longitudinal stresses (tension and compression) are produced
by
1) external forces normal to the cross section
2) bending moments about X and Z axes


f
Analysis for bending longitudinal stresses

The stress equations are where

o
n
= longitudinal stress (normal to the cross-section)

P = external load acting normal to the cross-section and at the
centroid of the effective cross sectional area

A = effective area of cross section (effective in taking normal
compression and tension axial load)

n
P
A
o =
f
For any given flange member with area (a) the
axial load on the member is







n
P
A
o =
in n i
P a o =
f
The normal tension and compression stresses due to bending
moment M
x
and M
z
acting on the unsymmetrical cross section are
given by

o
b
= -(K
3
M
z
K
1
M
x
)X (K
2
M
x
K
1
M
z
)Z where... (4)

o
b
=

bending stress tension (+ve) compression (ve)


1
2
2
2
3
2
XZ
X Z XZ
Z
X Z XZ
X
X Z XZ
I
K
I I I
I
K
I I I
I
K
I I I
=

X-X and Z-Z are effective area centroidal axes

The normal component of the axial load in a flange member = o
b
x a
where a is the area of the flange member
f
The normal tension and compression stresses due to bending moment
M
x
and M
z
acting on the unsymmetrical cross section are given by

o
b
= -(K
3
M
z
K
1
M
x
)X (K
2
M
x
K
1
M
z
)Z where... (4)

o
b
=

bending stress tension (+ve) compression (ve)


1
2
2
2
3
2
XZ
X Z XZ
Z
X Z XZ
X
X Z XZ
I
K
I I I
I
K
I I I
I
K
I I I
=

X-X and Z-Z are effective area centroidal axes

The normal component of the axial load in a flange member = o
b
x a
where a is the area of the flange member
f
Because of smooth tapering of section thickness
from the root to the tip, the angle between the
normal to a cross section and the stringer axis is
close to zero and therefore the normal component
o
b
a can be considered as the axial force on the
stringer


f
The stress equations are where

o
n
= longitudinal stress (normal to the cross-section)

P = external load acting normal to the cross-section
and at the centroid of the effective cross sectional
area

A = effective area of cross section (effective in taking
normal compression and tension axial load)

o
b
= -(K
3
M
z
K
1
M
x
)X (K
2
M
x
K
1
M
z
)Z .. (4)

In order to compute o
n
and o
b
, the effective area of the cross section
must be known


n
P
A
o =
f

Based on this, the location of centroidal axes, the moments
of inertia I
X
, I
Z
and I
XZ
have to be estimated

o
b
= -(K
3
M
z
K
1
M
x
)X (K
2
M
x
K
1
M
z
)Z where... (4)


1
2
2
2
3
2
XZ
X Z XZ
Z
X Z XZ
X
X Z XZ
I
K
I I I
I
K
I I I
I
K
I I I
=

f
Fig A19.25 shows the cross section at station 20 divided into 14
longitudinal members 1 to 14
f
Since the external load condition to be used places the top surface in
compression, the skin will buckle and thus we use the effective width
procedure to obtain the skin portion to act with each stringer

o
st
= 38,000 psi

1
2
2 1.9
st
E
W t
o
| |
=
|
\ .
f

Fig A19.25 shows the effective skin which is used with each flange
member to give the effective area of members (1) to (7)



f
Fig A19.25 shows the effective skin which is used with each flange
member to give the effective area of members (1) to (7)



f

Fig A19.25 shows the effective skin which is used with each flange
member to give the effective area of members (1) to (7)



f
The skin on the bottom surface being in tension is all
effective. Fig A19.25 shows the skin area used with each
bottom flange members



f
The next factor to decide is the stringer effectiveness factor
as discussed and explained in the previous example

For the cross-section of fig A19.25 we will assume that the
compressive failing stress of stringer is the same as that of
the corner member

Therefore we assume the stringer effectiveness factor =
1.0

f
Table A19.2 column 1 to 11 and the calculations below the table give
the calculations for determining the section properties, namely A, I
X
, I
Z

and I
XZ
at station-20


f
Table A19.2 column 1 to 11 and the calculations below the table give
the calculations for determining the section properties, namely A, I
X
, I
Z

and I
XZ
at station-20

f
Table A19.2 column 1 to 11 and the calculations below the table give
the calculations for determining the section properties, namely A, I
X
, I
Z

and I
XZ
at station-20

f
Table A19.2 column 1 to 11 and the calculations below the table give
the calculations for determining the section properties, namely A, I
X
, I
Z

and I
XZ
at station-20

f
Table A19.2 column 1 to 11 and the calculations below the table give
the calculations for determining the section properties, namely A, I
X
, I
Z

and I
XZ
at station-20

f
Table A19.2 column 1 to 11 and the calculations below the table give
the calculations for determining the section properties, namely A, I
X
, I
Z

and I
XZ
at station-20

f
Table A19.2 column 1 to 11 and the calculations below the table give
the calculations for determining the section properties, namely A, I
X
, I
Z

and I
XZ
at station-20

f
f
f
f
f
f
f
f
f
f
Table A19.3 give the section properties at station 47.5. The areas in
column-2 are less since the cross section has tapered between station-
20 and 47.5

f
Calculations of longitudinal stresses due to:
bending moments M
X
and M
Z

The design bending moments will be assumed as follows:
Station 20 Station 47.5

M
X
= 1,300,000 in lb M
X
= 1,000,000 in lb

M
Z
= -285,000 in lb M
Z
= -215,000 in lb







The moment M
y
will be the twisting moment and will not generate
normal stresses. Shear stresses due to M
y
will be taken up later

f
To compute o
b
the constants K
1
, K
2
and K
3
are needed for station 20.
From Table A19.2 we have


1
2 2
1
2
2
3
3 1 2
230.3, 1030 50
50
0.0002125
( ) (230.3 1030 50 )
50
0.0002125
( ) 235500
1030
0.004378
(235500) 235500
230.3
0.00098
(235500) 235500
( ) (
X Z XZ
XZ
X Z XZ
XZ
X Z XZ
Z
X
b Z X X
I I I
I
K
I I I
I
K
I I I
I
K
I
K
K M K M K M
d
X
an
o
= = =

= = =

= = =

= = =
= = =
=
1
)
[0.00098 ( 285000) ( 0.0002125 1, 300, 000)]
[0.004378 1, 300, 000 ( 0.0002125)( 285000)]
3.3 5639 .......................................................(5)
Z
b
b
K M Z
Z
x z
o
o

=

=
f
To compute o
b
the constants K
1
, K
2
and K
3
are needed for station 20.
From Table A19.2 we have


1
2 2
1
2
2
3
3 1 2
230.3, 1030 50
50
0.0002125
( ) (230.3 1030 50 )
50
0.0002125
( ) 235500
1030
0.004378
(235500) 235500
230.3
0.00098
(235500) 235500
( ) (
X Z XZ
XZ
X Z XZ
XZ
X Z XZ
Z
X
b Z X X
I I I
I
K
I I I
I
K
I I I
I
K
I
K
K M K M K M
d
X
an
o
= = =

= = =

= = =

= = =
= = =
=
1
)
[0.00098 ( 285000) ( 0.0002125 1, 300, 000)]
[0.004378 1, 300, 000 ( 0.0002125)( 285000)]
3.3 5639 .......................................................(5)
Z
b
b
K M Z
Z
x z
o
o

=

=
f
Table A19.2 column 1 to 11 and the calculations below the table give
the calculations for determining the section properties, namely A, I
X
, I
Z

and I
XZ
at station-20

f
Table A19.2 column 1 to 11 and the calculations below the table give
the calculations for determining the section properties, namely A, I
X
, I
Z

and I
XZ
at station-20

f
o
b
= 3.3x 5639z

Column 12 of table A19.2 gives the values of o
b
. The values of x and z are from
column 10 and 11

Multiplying these bending stresses by the stringer areas, the stringer loads are
given in column-13

The sum of the loads in this column should be zero since the total tension must
equal total compression under a pure bending load
f


f
Stresses at station 47.5
I
X
= 157.4, I
Z
= 700, I
XZ
= -35.4


1
2
2
3
35.4 35.4
0.000324
157.4 700 35.4 108950
700
0.00643
108950
157.4
0.001447
108950
[0.001447 ( 215000) ( 0.000324)1, 000, 000]
[0.00643 1, 000, 000 ( 0.00324)( 215000)]
14.5 6360
b
b
K
K
K
X
Z
Hence
X Z
o
o
=
= = =

= =
= =
=

=
f
Col-12 of table A19.3 gives this o
b
values and col-
13 gives the stringer loads at section 47.5

f
The stresses in col-12 of each table would be compared to the failing stress
of the flange members to obtain the m.s

f
f
f
f
f
Analysis of shear stresses in webs and skin

The shear flow distribution will be calculated
by using the change in axial load in the
stringers between station 20 and 47.5

This method is commonly referred to as the
AP method

For explanation of this method, refer to art
A15.16