SPECTROMETRY

SPECTOPHOTOMETRY ATOMIC ABSORPTION MASS SPECTROMETRY

LUMINESCENCE

ELECTROANALYTIC METHODS
ELECTROPHORESIS POTENTIOMETRY AMPEROMETRY GAS LIQUID THIN-LAYER

FLUORESCENCE CHEMILUMINESCENCE NEPHELOMETRY

CHROMATOGRAPHY

PHOTOMETRY
measure light intensity without consideration of wavelength

SPECTROPHOTOMETRY
Measurement of light intensity in a selected wavelength

ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION (EMR)

Photons of energy traveling in waves Includes spectrum of energy from short-wavelength, highly energetic gamma rays and x-rays

AMPLITUDE
PERIOD (p)
Length of electronic vector at maximum peak height. Time in seconds required for the passage of successive maxima or minima though a fixed point in space. Number of oscillation of waveform in second Expressed in Hertz (Hz)

FREQUENCY (v)
WAVELENGTH
millimicron angstrom

Corresponds to the cycle per seconds

Linear distance between any two equivalent points on a successive wave. UNIT: nanometer (nm)

STRAY LIGHT
Any wavelength outside the band transmitted by

the monochromator. Common cause: reflection of light from scratches on optical surfaces or from dust particles and high order spectra produce by diffraction gratings

Polychromatic light
All visible wavelengths are present

Ultraviolet 180-340 nm Visible 350 700 nm Infrared 700 - 900 nm

Wavelength 350 430 430-475 475-495 495-505 505-555 555-575

Color absorbed Violet Blue Green-blue Blue green Green Yellow green

Complementary color Yellow-blue yellow orange red Purple Violet

575-600 600-650
650-700

Yellow Orange
Red

Blue Green-blue
Blue-green

erg sec (plancks constant) v= frequency E= energy Energy is directly proportional to Frequency Frequency is inversely proportional to wavelength Energy is inversely proportional to wavelength

Where h =

Concentration of a substance is directly proportional to the amount of light absorbed or inversely proportional to the logarithm of transmitted light

A = absorbance a = absorptivity of a compound b=light path of the solution c = concentration of compound %T= percent transmittance

Light Source Entrance slit

Reduce stray light and prevents scattered light

from entering the monochromator

Monochromator Exit slit

Prevent stray light from entering the cuvet.

Analytic cell or Cuvet Photodetector Readout device

 Provides polychromatic light and must generate

sufficient radiant power to measure the analyte of interest. TYPES

Continuum source
Emits radiation that changes in intensity very slow as a function of wavelength EX: tungsten, deuterium, xenon

Line source
Emit a limited number of discrete lines or bands of radiation, each of which spans a limited range of wavelengths.

 Deuterium-discharge lamp and mercury arc

Most commonly used for ultraviolet (UV) work DEUTERIUM
provides continuous emission down to 165 nm

MERCURY LAMP Low Pressure Mercury Lamps emit sharp line spectrum, with both UV and visible line. Medium and High-pressure mercury lamps emit a continuum from UV to the mid visible region

Incandescent tungsten or tungsten-halogen lamp

Most common source of light in the visible and near-infrared region.

Silicone carbide - IR Merst glower - IR

Range Spectral distribution within the range The source of radiant production Stability of the radiant energy Temperature

A system of isolating a desired wavelength and excluding others BANDPASS

Total range of wavelength submitted With at more than half the maximum transmittance.

Diffraction Gratings
Most commonly used Consist of 15000 or 30000 per inch etched onto a polished surface parallel

Prism

grooves DIFFRACTION- the separation of light into component wavelength dispersion of white light into continuous spectrum. Wedge-shaped pieces of glass , quartz or sodium chloride.

Short wavelengths are refracted more than long wavelengths, resulting in

Interference Filter

Colored-glass filters

Principle: constructive interference of waves. Magnesium fluoride with micro-mirror Pass very narrow range of wavelength with good efficiency Pass a relative wide band of radiant energy and have a low transmittance of

the selected wavelength

Quality of monochromators are described by

Nominal wavelength Represents the wavelength nanometer at peak transmittance Spectral bandwidth Range of wavelengths above one half peak transmittance Bandpass Total range of wavelength transmitted

Square cuvets have an advantage over round cuvets in that there is less error from the lens effect,orientation in the spectrophotometer and refraction. Silicate glasses- 350-2000nm GLASS CUVETS- visible range QUARTZ CUVETS -UV radiation. Polycarbonate plastic both visible and UV region

Converts the transmitted radiant energy into an equivalent amount of electrical energy BARRIER-LAYER CELLS/ PHOTOCELLS/PHOTOVOLTAIC

Least expensive Composed of a film of light sensitive material ~SELENIUM, on a plate

of iron Do not require external voltage source, rely on internal electron transfer to produce a current in an external circuit Output of electrical energy is not easily amplified Used mainly for in filter photometers with wide band pass, producing a fairly high level of illumination so that there is no need to amplify the signal Inexpensive, durable Temperature sensitive and nonlinear at very low and very high levels of illumination

PHOTOTUBE
Also has photosensitive materials that gives off

electrons when light energy strikes it Requires an outside voltage Has negatively charge cathode and positively charge anode enclosed in gas case.
CATHODE: (rubidium, lithium) resistor on dark but emits electrons when exposed to light A vacuum within tubes avoids scattering of the photoelectrons by collision with gas molecules.

PHOTOMULTIPLIER TUBE(PMT)
detects and amplifies radiant energy DYNODES- series of anodes that gives off many

secondary electrons when hit by single electron. 200x more sensitive than phototube. Extremely sensitive to very low light levels and light flashes of very short duration. Analog signal voltagedigital signal (A/D converter)absorbance reading

SILICON DIODE TRANSDUCERS

More sensitive than phototubes but less sensitive

than PMT Spectral ranges from 190-1100 nm. Positively (p) and negatively (n) charge semi conductive materials adjoining one another embedded on a silicon chip

MULTICHANNEL PHOTON TRANSDUCER

Consist of array of small photoelectric sensitive

elements arranged either linearity or in a two dimensional pattern on a semiconductor chip. CHIP- usu. SILICON
Contains electronic circuitry making it possible to determine the electric output signal sequentially or simultaneously.

PHOTODIODE ARRAY (PDA)

Produce one dimension array of several hundred photodiodes

CHARGE-TRANSFER DEVICE

set side-by-side on a single integrated circuit (IC)

Two dimensional array detectors that operate on a charge

transfer process CTD- released electron from the bound state to mobile state. Charge-injection devices
Charge accumulated in each pixel can be measured independently and nondestructively by using a network of sensing electrodes

Charge couple devices Charged packet are moved in-step along the array row from one pixel to the next as in a bucket chain

WAVELENGHT ACCURACY
Wavelength indicated on the control dial is the

actual wavelength of light passed by the monochromator DYDIMIUM or HOLMIUM OXIDE IN GLASS
Frequently used filter to check wavelength accuracy.

MERCURY VAPOR LAMP Verify wavelength accuracy in narrow band pass.

LINEARITY

Display the magnitude of the electric current from a detector

METER READING DEVICE
Displays the analog detector signal by reflecting the needle along the a scale

DIGITAL READOUT DEVICE

Send the detector signal through an analog to digital converter (A/D) and the microprocessor to display results using a light-emitting diode (LED) or liquid crystal display (LCD)

RECORDER (STRIP CHART OR INTEGRATOR)

Maybe connected extremely to give tracing of the detector output against time or wavelength.

Splits monochromatic light in 2 components One beam passes through sample and other through a reference solution or blank Additional beam corrects for variation in light source intensity The absorbance of the sample can be recorded as the electrical output of the sample beam

1.

DOUBLE-BEAM IN TIME
Uses one photodetector and alternately passes the monochromatic light though the sample cuvet and then reference cuvet using a chopper.

2.

DOUBLE-BEAM IN SPACE
Uses 2 photodetector, for the sample beam and reference beam

Used to measure concentration by deleting absorption of electromagnetic radiation by atoms rather than by molecules The element is not excited but merely dissociated from its chemical bonds and placed in a unexcited, ground state.`

If an element can be excited by external energy to emit radiation of a specific wavelength, the element in the ground state will absorb radiation of exact wavelength.

PARTS
1. Light Source 2. Atomizer or burner

3. Monochromator
4. Photomultiplier tube 5. Meter or Recorder

1.

Light source:
Hallow-cathode lamp Consist of an evacuated gas-tight chamber containing an anode, a cylindrical cathode and an inert gas such as HELIUM and ARGON Electrodeless discharge lamp Bulb is filled with ARGON and the element to be tested

 2.

Flame serves as a sample cell. ATOMIZER or BURNER

Produces the flame Two light signals from the flame
1. 2. Alternating signal from hollow cathode lamp Direct signal from the flame emission

PREMIX LONG-PATH BURNER

Most common burner Sample are aspirated, mixed with air and fuel, large droplets go to waste.

TOTAL CONSUMPTION BURNER

Gasses like hydrogen and air and the sample are not mixed before entering the flame

3.

MONOCHROMATOR
Serves to protect the photodetector from excessive light

emanating from flame emission USES GRATING BECAUSE

4. 5.

PHOTOMULTIPLIER TUBE

Dispersion of spectrum is linear Has higher efficiency at UV region Its spectrum is not distorted by temperature changes.

METER OR RECORDER
Reads at mEq/L

Light detector Uses very stable AC-type electronic amplifier to boost the inherent amplification

Advantage
Sensitive and precise For trace metal Propane or air acetylene flame remain in the ground

Disadvantage

state available for light absorption~ accurate, precise and specific

Inability of the flame to dissociate samples into free

atoms. Ionization of atoms following dissociation by the flame Matrix interference

INDUCTIVE COUPLES PLASMA

Increase sensitivity for atomic emission. An argon plasma maintained by the interaction of

radiofrequency field and an ionized argon gas, is reported to have used temperatures between 5500K and 8000K Recommended for determination of zirconium, uranium and boron ICP with MC is the most sensitive and specific assay technique for all elements in periodic chart.

Requires electrothermal atomization

Electric furnace to break chemical bonds Electric current passes through the cylinder walls,

evaporated the solvent, ashes the sample and heats the unit to incandescence to atomize the sample. Determine amount if light absorbed

Measures the light emitted by a single atom burned in a flame Principle: Excitation of electrons from lower to high energy state Light source: flame (also serves as cuvette) Method: Indirect internal standard method Internal standard:Lithium/cesium to correct for the variation in flame and atomizer characteristic Used for the measurement of excited ions (sodium and potassium) Flickering light indicates changes in fuel reading in instrument

Must not normally be present in a biologic fluid Excitation energies of IS and that of element being analyzed must be close Emission lines of IS and the element analyzed must be well separated.

Sodium yellow Potassium Violet Lithium Red Rubidium Red Magnesium - Blue

1.
2.

Atomizer or burner
Flame

Breaks up the specimen aliquot into fine droplets Causes the evaporation of the solvent from the sample to produce dry salt
Hard flame Blue Soft flame Red Orange

3. 4.

Gas and Air supply Monochromator PM tube Readout device

Allows only emitted line spectrum of an element under study to strike the PM tube while rejecting the flame spectrum
Galvanometer or recorder Propane gas

5. 6.

Measurement of fluorescence Determine the amount of light emitted by a molecule after excitation by electromagnetic radiation. Fluorescence occurs when electrons give off light as they drop from the excited state back to their ground state within a molecule Highly specific because of SIGNATURE or FINGERPRINT

COMPONENTS
Light Source (Gas discharge lamps)
Sources of excitation radiant energy XENON ARC LAMP MERCURY
Commonly use in filter fluorometers

Attenuator
Controls light intensity

Primary filter
Select wavelength that is best absorb by the solution to be measured

Cuvet Secondary filter

Passes the longer wavelengths of fluorescent lamp

Light detector (PM Tube) Readout device

Advantage
Specificity
selecting the optimal wavelength for both absorption and fluorescence.

Sensitivity
1000x more sensitive than spectrophotometric method

Disadvantage
Sensitive to environmental changes Affects by Quenching
pH Temperature Chemical contaminants UV light changes

Part of the chemical energy generated excited intermediates that decay .to a ground state with the emission of photons. No excitation radiation is required and no monochromators are needed because the chemiluminescene arises from one species CHEMILUMINESCENCE reactions are oxidation reactions of LUMINOL, ACRIDIUM ESTERS and DIOXETANES characterized by rapid increase in intensity of emitted light followed by a gradual decay.

Advantage
Subpicomolar detection limits Speed With flash type reactions, light is only measured for 10 seconds) Ease of use (one step procedure)

Disadvantage
Impurities can cause background signal that

degrades sensitivity and specificity

Enhanced chemiluminescence techniques increase the chemiluminiescence efficiency by including an enhancer system in the reaction of a chemiluminescent agent with an enzyme.~60 minutes compared to 30 seconds time course for the light intensity of conventional chemiluminescent reaction

Determine the amount of scattered light by a particulate matter suspended in a turbid solution Light scattering depends on wavelength and particle size For measuring the amount of antigenantibody reaction complexes

Determine the amount of light blocked by a particulate matter in a turbid solution. The amount of light blocked by a suspension of particles depends not only on concentration but also on size. For measuring abundant large particles proteins and bacterial suspension

Light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation is based on the interaction of radiant energy and suitably excited atoms or molecules.

GALVANIC CELLS
Electrodes are connected There is spontaneous flow of electrons from the

electron of lower affinity(oxidation), these electrons pass through the external meter to cathode (reduction), where OH- ions are liberated. ELECTROLYTIC CELLS- when current is force to floe through the dead cells only by applying an external electromotive force E.

To rate half cell reaction, a specific electrode reaction is arbitrarily assigned 0.00V. (standard hydrogen eectrode:H2 gas at 1 atm) Every other reaction coupled with this arbitrary zero reaction is either positive or negative, depending on the relative affinity for electrons.

Measurement of differences in voltage (potential) between two electrodes in a solution for measuring analyte concentration at a constant current Electric potentials are produced at the interface between a metal and ions of that metal in solution. Also, when a membrane semipermeable to that ion separates different concentrations of an ion. REFERENCE ELECTRODE
Electrode with constant voltage

INDICATOR ELECTRODE
Measuring electrode

GLASS ELECTRODE first and most common electrodes for measuring hydrogen ion activity (pH or negative log of hydrogen ion concentration) Consist of bulb made of layers of hydrated and nonhydrated glass, which contains a chloride ion buffer solution

Electrochemical transducer capable of responding to one specific ion. Very sensitive and selective for the ion it measures Consist of a membrane or other barrier separating a reference solution and a reference electrode from the solution to be analyzed. Depends on membrane/barrier composition that determines its ionic selectivity

Gas electrode Liquid membrane electrodes Precipitate-impregnated membrane electrodes Solid state electrodes Gas electrodes Enzyme electrodes

BUFFER as known hydrogen ion concentration Silver/silver chloride

internal reference electrode

Saturated calomel electrode

External reference electrode

pH electrode consist of a silver wire coated with AgCl, immersed into an internal soln of 0.1 mmol/L HCl, and placed into a tube containing special glass membrane tip The glass membranes are selectively sensitive to H+ consist of lithium, cesium, lanthanum, barium or aluminum oxide Potential difference between the internal solution and test solution is measure as pH and read by voltmeter

Should be
Reversible and obey the Nernst equation

Exhibit a potential that is constant with time.

Return to its original potential after being

subjected to small currents Exhibit little hysteries (lag with temperature cycling)

Generally consist of a metal and its salt in contact with a solution containing the same anion. CALOMEL ELECTRODE- commonly used
A paste of predominant mercurous chloride, is in direct

contact with metallic mercury in an electrolyte solution of potassium chloride. Slow to reach a new stable voltage following temperature change and it is unstable above 80C

SILVER/SILVER CHLORIDE
Can be used at temperature up to 275C

MERCURY SULFATE AND POTASSIUM SULFATE

Set up at boundary between two dissimilar solutions because of positive and negative ions diffusing across the boundary at unequal rates
POTASSIUM CHLORIDE
Commonly used filling solution because K+ and Cl- have nearly the same mobility

Selection of ISE is determined by the reaction product of the immobilized enzyme Ex:
Urease urea
Glucose oxidase glucose detection

1.
2.

Inert metal electrodes in contact with a redox couple

Metal electrodes that participate in redox reaction
Hydrogen electrode Ag/AgCl electrode Solid materials
glass

3.
1. 2.

Membrane electrodes
Liquid materials
Ion exchange electrodes Calcium ISE

3.

Special membrane
Gas-sensing Enzyme electrodes

Measures the quantity of electricity (in coulombs) needed to convert an analyte to a different oxidation state Coulomb is the quantity of electricity or charge that is transported in 1 second by a constant current of 1 ampere for t second. Used to measure chloride ion in serum, plasma , CSF and sweat samples.

pH electrode contained within a plastic jacket Filled with sodium bicarbonate buffer and has a gas-permeable membrane (teflon or silicone) across its opening

Measurement of the current flow produced by an oxidation- reduction reaction. For chloride measurement (coloumetryamperometry)

Potential is applied to an electrochemical cell and the resulting current is measured ADVANTAGE: sensitivity and capability for multi element measurement Analytes can be detected in parts per billion range ANODIC STRIPPING VOLTAMMETRY
Electrochemical technique used to measure heavy

metals such as lead

CONDUCTANCE
Electrolytic conductivity is a measure of the ability

of a solution to carry an electric current

IMPEDANCE
Based on the change in electrical resistance across

an aperture when a particle in conductive liquid passes through this aperture Used in hematology laboratory to enumerate leukocytes, erythrocytes and platelets

Performed similarly to other electrophoresis methods, except that the separating molecules migrate through pH gradient deal for separating .proteins of identical sizes but with different net charges. Protein s move in the electric field until they reach a pH equal to their isoelectric point. Ph gradient is made by adding acid to anodic side and adding base to cathode area. ADV: ability to resolve mixture of proteins For measuring serum acid phosphatase isoenzymes, detection of oligoclonal immunoglobulin bands in CSF and isoenzymes of creatine kinase and alkaline phosphatase in serum.

ELECTROPHORESIS
Separation of charged compounds based on their

electrical charge Cations go towards anode, anions go towards cathode The greater the net charges of a dissolve compound, the faster it moves through he solution toward the opposite charged electrode.

Measures the absorbance of the stain on a support medium. COMPONENTS

Light source
Monochromator Movable carriage

Optical system
Photodetector

Migration of charged solutes or particles in an electric field IONTROPHORESIS

Refers to the migration of small ions

ZONE ELECTROPHORESIS
Migration of charged macromolecules in a porous

support medium such as paper, cellulose acetate or agarose gel film ELECTROPHORETOGRAM
Result of zone electrophoresis Consist of sharply separated zone of macromolecules

Driving force (electrical power) Support medium Buffer Sample Detecting system

Charged particles migrate toward the opposite charged electrode Velocity of migration depends on:

Net charge of particle Size and shape of the particle Strength of the electric field Chemical and physical properties of the supporting medium Electrophoretic temperature
Rate of migration is directly proportional to the net

charge of the particle and inversely proportional to its size and the viscosity of the buffer

Cellulose acetate
Formed by treating cellulose acetylated with acetic anhydride Dry, brittle, film composed of about 80% air space. Also used in isoelectric focusingjm Purified fraction of agar, it is neutral and does not produce electroendosmosis Requires small amount of sample (approx 2mL) Does not bind protein therefore migration is not affected Separation of protein on the basis of charge and molecular size Separate serum into 20 or more fractions rather than the usual five fraction. Widely used to study individual proteins Separates protein on the basis of surface charge and molecular size Not widely use because of technical difficulty in preparing gel.

Agarose gel

Polyacrylamide gel

Starch gel

Separation is performed in narrow-bore fused silica capillaries (inner diameter 2575 nm) Concept: electro-osmotic flow (EOF) EOF is the bulk flow of liquid toward the cathode upon application of electric field and it is superimposed on electrophoretic migration. Cation migrate faster because both EOF and electrophoretic attraction are towards cathode. For separation, quantitation and determination of molecular weights of proteins and peptides, analysis of PCR products, analysis of organic ions, organic acids, pharmaceuticals, optical isomers and drugs of abuse in serum and urine.

The movement of buffer ions an solvent relative to the fixed support Support media: paper, cellulose acetate and agar gel Hydroxyl ion remain fixed while free positive ions move toward the cathode.

Separation method based on different interaction of the specimen compounds with the mobile phase and the stationary phase as compound travel through a support medium. RETENTION TIME(tR) Time it takes a compound to elute

MOBILE PHASE
Gas or liquid Carries the complex mixture (sample)

STATIONARY PHASE
Solid or liquid Through which the mobile phase flows

COLUMN
Holding the stationary phase

SEPARATED COMPONENTS
eluate

Adsorption
AKA liquid-solid chromatography Based on the competition between the sample and the mobile phase

for absorption sites on the solid stationary phase Molecules that are most soluble in the mobile phase , move fastest

Partition
AKA liquid-liquid chromatography Separation of solute based on relative solubility in an organic

(nonpolar) solvent and aqueous(polar) solvent

Normal phase mobile solvent is less polar than the stationary solvent Reverse phase mobile solvent is more polar

Applicable to any substance that maybe distributed between two

liquid Works best in nonionic compound

Steric exclusion
Variation of liquid-solid chromatography Separate molecules on the basis of the size and shape

Ion exchange
Solute mixture are separated by virtue of the

magnitude and charge of ionic species. Stationary phase is a resin consisting of large polymers of substituted benzene, silicates or cellulose derivatives, with charge functional groups

THINLAYER CHROMATOGRAPHY
Thin layer of sorbent , such as alumina , silica gel,

cellulose or cross linked dextran, is uniformly coated on a glass or plastic plate Most commonly used as semiquantitative screening test

Uses pressure for fast separations, controlled temperature, in-line detectors and gradient elution techniques PUMPS

Forces the mobile phase through the column at a

much greater velocity than that accomplished by gravity-flow columns and includes pneumatic, syringe, reciprocating or hydraulic amplifier pumps. MECHANICAL RECIPROCATING PUMP
Multihead pump with two or more reciprocating pistons.

COLUMNS
Long stainless steel where the stationary phase is

packed SILICA GEL most common material used for packing

Stable and can be used in different ways.

Reverse-phase HPLC Stationary phase is nonpolar molecules(octadecyl C-18 hydrocardbon) bonded to silica gel particles.

SAMPLE INJECTORS
Small syringe Loop injector best and widely used
High reproducibility and used at high temperature.

DETECTORS

Monitor the eluate as it leaves the column and produce an

RECORDERS

electronic signal proportional to the concentration of each separated component

Used to record detector signal versus the time the mobile

phase passed through the instrument, starting from the time of injection. CHROMATOGRAM -

Separate mixture of compounds hat are volatile or can be made volatile. GAS-SOLID CHROMATOGRAPHY (GSC)
solid stationary phase

GAS-LIQUID CHROMATOGRAPHY (GLC)

With non volatile liquid stationary phase.

Commonly used in clinical laboratories.

ADVANTAGE
Increase the number of tests to be performed in a

given period Minimizes variation of result from one laboratorian to another Eliminates the potential error in manual analyses such as pipetting, calculation and transcript of result

CONTINUOUS FLOW ANALYZER

Liquids are pump through a system of continuous tubing Samples flow through a common reaction vessel or

pathway. Air bubbles at regular intervals serves as separating and cleaning media Mixture of sample and reagent takes place using a glass coil inserted into flow path A heating bath maintains the required temperature of the reaction to allow complete color developmentreaction rate is controlled by temperature Ex Simultaneous multiple analyzer (SMA), technicon

CENTRIFUGAL ANALYZER
Use the force generated by centrifugation to transfer

specimen and reagents Liquids are placed in separate cuvets for measurement at the perimeter of a spinning rotor (1000rpm) It uses acceleration and deceleration of the rotor to transfer the reagents and sample from one chamber to another For mixing, centrifugal force or rotor is utilized or bubbling of air Major advantage: Batch analysis Ex Cobas- Bio (Roche), IL Monarch

DISCRETE ANALYZER
Most popular and versatile analyzer Employs variety of syringe and pipettes to aspirate and dispense sample and

reagents Positive liquid-displacement pipettes are used for sampling Capable of running multiple-test-one-sample at-a-time. Each sample-reagent mixture handles separately in its own vessel Has Random access capability that allows STAT samples to be easily accessed. For mixing, magnetic driven teflon stirring bar located in the bottom of the reaction chamber is used in Beckman ASTRA For dry slide technology (reflectance photometry, the spreading layer permits a rapid uniform spreading layer over the reagent layer.
REFLECTANCE PHOTOMETRY- measure the light reflected from solid surfaces. EX: Vitros, dimension Dade, Beckman ASTRA System, Hitachi, Bayer Advia Roche Cobas Integra 800, Roche anlaysis P module, ACA star (Dade)

BATCH TESTING
All samples are loaded at the same time, and singles test is conducted

PARALLEL TESTING
More than one test is analyzed concurrently on a given clinical

on each sample

RANDOM ACCESS TESTING SEQUENTIAL TESTING

Any test can be performed on any sample in any sequence Multiple tests analyzed one after another on a given specimen A system other than manufacturers reagent can be utilized for

specimen

OPEN REAGENT SYSTEM

measurement reagents.

CLOSE REAGENT SYSTEM

A system where the operator can only used the manufacturer

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