Satellite Communication Lecture-2&3

Dr. Shahab Ahmad Niazi

1

Orbits

In physics, an orbit is the gravitationally curved path of one object around a point or another body, for example the gravitational orbit of a planet around a star.

Galacto-centric orbit: An orbit about the center of a galaxy. The Sun follows this type of orbit about the galactic center of the Milky Way. Heliocentric orbit: An orbit around the Sun. In our Solar System, all planets, comets, and asteroids are in such orbits, as are many artificial satellites and pieces of space debris.

Inclination Classification
Inclined orbit: An orbit whose inclination in reference to the equatorial plane is not 0.

Polar orbit: An orbit that passes above or nearly above both poles of the planet on each revolution. Therefore it has an inclination of (or very close to) 90 degrees.
4

Inclination Classification

Johannes Kepler
(December 27, 1571 November 15, 1630) First Law(1609) The path followed by a satellite around the primary will be an ellipse.(Tycho Brahe)

Review: Ellipse analysis

y (0,b)

P(x,y)
x V(a,0)

V(-a,0)

F(-c,0) (0,-b)

F(c,0)

a 2 b2 c2
Points (-c,0) and (c,0) are the foci. Points (-a,0) and (a,0) are the vertices. Line between vertices is the major axis. a is the length of the semimajor axis. Line between (0,b) and (0,-b) is the minor axis. b is the length of the semiminor axis.

Standard Equation:

x2 y2 2 1 2 a b
Area of ellipse:

A ab
8

Eccentricity Classification

Eccentricity Classification
Circular orbit: An orbit that has an eccentricity of 0 and whose path traces a circle. Elliptic orbit: An orbit with an eccentricity greater than 0 and less than 1 whose orbit traces the path of an ellipse. Parabolic orbit: An orbit with the eccentricity equal to 1. It also has escape velocity and therefore will escape the gravitational pull of the planet.

10

Keplers Second Law

For equal time intervals, a satellite will sweep out equal areas in its orbital plane, focused at the barycenter.

11

Keplers Third Law

Kepler's third law states that the square of the periodic time of orbit is proportional to the cube of the mean distance between the two bodies . The mean distance is equal to the semi major axis a. For the artificial satellites orbiting the earth Kepler's third law can be written in the form

n is the mean motion of the satellite in radians per second and

is the earths geocentric gravitational constant.

"n" is in radians per second, the orbital period in seconds is given by

1 2

13

Axes Cx, Cy and Cz are mutually orthogonal with Cx and Cy passing the earth's center. The vector r locates the moving satellite with respect to the center of The earth

Earth

rotation

14

15

 From Equations 1& 2 ,

This is a second order linear differential equation and its solution involves six undetermined constants called the orbital elements. Orbit described by these orbital elements can be shown to lie in a plane and to have a constant angular momentum.

16

Satellite Orbital Parameters

The position of a satellite in an orbit can be determined from the following 6 parameters: Semi major axis, a Determines size of orbit Eccentricity, e Determines shape of orbit

17 17

Satellite Orbital Parameters

inclination, i Right ascension of ascending node, i and orient the plane of the orbit Argument of perigee, Orients the orbit within a plane

Mean anomaly, M Provides a time reference

18 18

Definitions of Terms EOS

Subsatellite path. This is the path traced out on the earths surface directly below the satellite. Apogee. The point farthest from earth. Apogee height is shown as ha in Fig. Perigee. The point of closest approach to earth. The perigee height is shown as hp in Fig.
19

Definitions of Terms EOS

Line of apsides. The line joining the perigee and apogee through the center of the earth. Ascending node. The point where the orbit crosses the equatorial plane going from south to north. Descending node. The point where the orbit crosses the equatorial plane going from north to south. Line of nodes. The line joining the ascending and descending nodes through the center of the earth.
20

Definitions of Terms EOS

equatorial plane. It is measured at the ascending node from the equator to the orbit, going from east to north. The inclination is shown as i in Fig. It will be seen that the greatest latitude, north or south, reached by the subsatellite path is equal to the inclination. Prograde orbit. An orbit in which the satellite moves in the same direction as the earths rotation, as shown in Fig. The prograde orbit is also known as a direct orbit. The inclination of a prograde orbit always lies between 0 and 90. Most satellites are launched in a prograde orbit because the earths rotational velocity provides part of the orbital velocity with a consequent saving in launch energy.
21

Definitions of Terms EOS

First point of Aries. when the plane of the Earth's equator passes the centre of the Sun. At this time the tilt of the Earth's axis is inclined neither away from nor towards the Sun. At an equinox the Sun is at one of two opposite points on the Celestial Sphere where the celestial equator (i.e. declination 0) and ecliptic intersect. These points of intersection are called equinoctial points or first point of Aries or Libra.

22

Definitions of Terms EOS

Mean anomaly. Mean anomaly M gives an average value of the angular position of the satellite with reference to the perigee circular orbit, For circular orbit, M gives the angular position of the satellite in the orbit. For elliptical orbit, the position is much more difficult to calculate, and M is used as an intermediate step in the calculation. True anomaly. The true anomaly is the angle from perigee to the satellite position, measured at the earths center. This gives the true angular position of the satellite in the orbit as a function of time. A method of determining the true anomaly.
23

Defining Parameters

Center of earth Argument of Perigee Right Ascension

First Point of Aries

Inclination of orbit

Orbit passes through equatorial plane here

Equatorial plane
24

Defining Parameters

(Source: M.Richaria, Satellite Communication Systems, Fig.2.9)

25

Definitions of Terms EOS

26

Coordinate System
Latitude: Angular distance, measured in degrees, north or south of the equator. L from -90 to +90 (or from 90S to 90N).
Longitude: Angular distance, measured in degrees, from a given reference longitudinal line (Greenwich, London). l from 0 to 360E (or 180W to 180E)
27

Inclination
A satellite orbit's Inclination (i) indicates the angle of the satellite orbit plane measured from the Earth's equatorial plane. Inclination can range anywhere from 0 to 180 degrees. An orbit inclination of 0 to 90 degrees is called a prograde orbit. An orbit inclination of 90 to 180 degrees is called a retrograde orbit.

28

Argument of the Perigee

The Argument of Perigee (w) is defined as the angle within the satellite orbit plane that is measured from the Ascending Node (W) to the perigee point (p) along the satellite's direction of travel. The value of the Argument of Perigee can be anywhere from 0 to 360 degrees.
29

True Anomaly of Satellite

This parameter is used to indicate the position of the satellite in its orbit. This is done by defining the angle , called the true anomaly of the satellite, formed by the line joining the perigee and center of the earth with the line joining the satellite and the center of the earth.

30

Ascending and Descending Nodes

The satellite orbit cuts the equatorial plane at two points, the first called the descending node (n1), where satellite passes From northern hemisphere to the Southern hemisphere, and second Called ascending node (n2), where Satellite passes from southern to northern Hemisphere.

31

Equinox

An equinox occurs twice a year (around 20 March and 22 September), when the tilt of the Earth's axis is inclined neither away from nor towards the Sun, the center of the Sun being in the same plane as the Earth's equator. The term equinox can also be used in a broader sense, meaning the date when such a passage happens. The name "equinox" is derived from the Latin aequus (equal) and nox (night), because around the equinox, night and day are about equal length.

32

Right Ascension of Ascending Node The Right Ascension of the Ascending Node (aW) indicates the geocentric Right Ascension (R.A. or a) of a satellite as it intersects the Earth's equatorial plane traveling northward (ascending). Its value can range anywhere from 0 to 360 degrees.

33

Describing the orbit of a satellite

The equation of the orbit is
Where,
( h2 ) P= is semim

p r0 = 1 + e cos f 0

latus rectum and h is angular momentum.

r a( 1 + e ) a = rp = a( 1 e)

..----a (1 + e) ---

-a (1 - e)

..1
I

34

Satellite Orbits Coverage

S
Satellite rs Local horizontal El E Z Earth station
Fig 2.12 in Pratt et al.
El = elevation angle = E = earth station location Z = point on the surface of the Earth where the radius SC cuts the earth

re C Earth
Geometry for El angle calculation
35

This curve allows you to calculate coverages

S Satellite
This angle allows you to calculate the antenna beamwidth

Local horizontal
Z

rs d El E

This angle allows you to calculate the number of satellites required for full coverage in one plane

Earth station

re

This allows you to calculate elevation angles

Earth
Geometry for El angle calculation

Fig 2.12 in Pratt et al.

36

37

 The geographic z-axis of the earth (which passes through the true North Pole and the Center of the Earth, C, does not lie in same direction the axis Z except the satellite orbits that are exactly in the plane of the geographical equator.

z
Z

38

Locating The Satellite

= Average angular velocity
E = Eccentric Anomaly M = Mean Anomaly
M = arc length (in radians) that the satellite would have traversed since perigee passage if it were moving around the circumscribed circle with a mean angular velocity
39

Angles defining Direction of Satellite

The direction of the satellite is defined by two angles, the first by angle between the direction of the satellite velocity vector and its projection in the local horizontal and second by Angle Az, between the north and the projection of the satellites velocity vector on the local horizontal.

40

Look Angles
Azimuth: Measured eastward (clockwise) from geographic north to the projection of the satellite path on a (locally) horizontal plane at the earth station. Elevation Angle: Measured upward from the local horizontal plane at the earth station to the satellite path.
41

Look Angles

42

Period Calculation of a Satellite

The most simple equation for the period of a satellite is given by:

T = ( 2p r ) / ( m )

3 2

Where = 3.986 x 10^5

The velocity of a satellite is:

2p h= = T

m r
3 2
43

Solstices
Solstices are the times when the inclination angle is at its maximum (i.e 23.4 deg). These also occur twice a year on 21 June, called the summer solstice and 21 December called the winter solstice.
44

Solar vs. Sidereal Day

A sidereal day is the time between consecutive crossings of any particular longitude on the earth by any star other than the sun. A solar day is the time between consecutive crossings of any particular longitude of the earth by the sun-earth axis. Solar day = EXACTLY 24 hrs Sidereal day = 23 h 56 min. 4.091 s Why the difference? By the time the Earth completes a full rotation with respect to an external point (not the sun), it has already moved its center position with respect to the sun. The extra time it takes to cross the sun-earth axis, averaged over 4 full years (because every 4 years one has 366 days) is of about 3.93 minutes per day.

Calculation next page

45

Solar vs. Sidereal Day

Numerical Calculation: 4 years = 1461 solar days (365*4 +1) 4 years : earth moves 1440 degrees (4*360) around sun. 1 solar day: earth moves 0.98 degrees (=1440/1461) around sun 1 solar day : earth moves 360.98 degress around itself (360 + 0.98) 1sidereal day = earth moves 360 degrees around itself 1 solar day = 24hrs = 1440 minutes 1 sidereal day = 1436.7 minutes (1440*360/360.98) Difference = 3.93 minutes

(Source: M.Richaria, Satellite Communication Systems, Fig.2.7)

46

PART-2
47

Design of the Satellite Link

Also important is the efficient transfer of user information across the relevant interfaces at the Earth stations, involving such issues as the precise nature of this information, data protocol, timing, and the telecommunications interface standards that apply to the service. A proper engineering methodology guarantees that the application will go into operation as planned, meeting its objectives for quality and reliability.

48

Design of the Satellite Link

The RF carrier in any microwave communications link begins at the transmitting electronics and propagates from the transmitting antenna through the medium of free space and absorptive atmosphere to the receiving antenna, where it is recovered by the receiving electronics. The carrier is modulated by a baseband signal that transfers information for the particular application. The first step in designing the microwave link is to identify the overall requirements and the critical components that determine performance. For this purpose, we use the basic arrangement of the link shown in Figure.
49

Design of the Satellite Link

Critical Elements of the Satellite Link

50

Design of the Satellite Link

Bidirectional (duplex) communication occurs with a separate transmission from each Earth station. Due to the analog nature of the radio frequency link, each element contributes a gain or loss to the link and may add noise and interference as well.

51

Design of the Satellite Link

The result in the overall performance is presented in terms of the ratio of carrier power to noise (the carrier-tonoise ratio, C/N) and, ultimately, information quality (bit error rate, video impairment, or audio fidelity). Done properly, this analysis can predict if the link will work with satisfactory quality based on the specifications of the ground and space components. Any uncertainty can be covered by providing an appropriate amount of link margin, which is over and above the C/N needed to deal with propagation effects and nonlinearity in the Earth stations and satellite repeater.
52

Link Budget and their Interpretation

The link between the satellite and Earth station is governed by the basic microwave radio link equation:

where pr is the power received by the receiving antenna; pt is the power applied to the transmitting antenna; gt is the gain of the transmitting antenna; gr is the gain of the receiving antenna; c is the speed of light (i.e., approximately 300 106 m/s); R is the range (path length) in meters; and f is the frequency in hertz.

53

Link Budget and their Interpretation

Almost all link calculations are performed after converting from products and ratios to decibels. The same formula, when converted into decibels, has the form of a power balance.

54

Link Budget and their Interpretation

We can correct the path loss for other frequencies and path lengths using the formula:

where A0 is the free-space path loss in decibels, f is the frequency in gigahertz, and R is the path length in kilometers. The term on the right can be expressed in terms of the elevation angle from the Earth station toward the satellite,
55

Link Budget and their Interpretation

The term on the right can be expressed in terms of the elevation angle from the Earth station toward the satellite. i.e.

where is the latitude and is the longitude of the Earth station minus that of the satellite (e.g., the relative longitude).

56

Link Budget and their Interpretation

Tropospheric (gaseous atmosphere) effects:
Absorption by air and water vapor (non-condensed): This is nearly constant for higher elevation angles, adding only a few tenths of decibels to the path loss. It generally can be ignored at frequencies below 15 GHz. Refractive bending and scintillation (rapid fluctuations of carrier power) at low elevation angles: Earth stations that must point within 10 of the horizon to view the satellite are subject to wider variations in received or transmitted signal and therefore require more link margin. Tropospheric scintillation is time varying signal attenuation (and enhancement) caused by combining of the direct path with the refracted path signal in the receiving antenna.

57

Link Budget and their Interpretation

Rain attenuation: This important factor increases with frequency and rain rate. Additional fade margin is required for Ku- and Ka-band links, based on the statistics of local rainfall. This will require careful study for services that demand high availability. A standardized rain attenuation predictor, called the DAH model is available for this purpose . Rain also introduces scintillation due to scattering of electromagnetic waves by raindrops, and in a later section we will see that the raindrops also radiate thermal noisea factor that is easily modeled. In addition, rain beading on antenna surfaces scatters and in very heavy rains can puddle on feeds, temporarily providing high losses not accounted for in the DAH and thermal noise models.

58

Link Budget Example

Satellite application engineers need to assess and allocate performance for each source of gain and loss. The link budget is the most effective means since it can address and display all of the components of the power balance equation, expressed in decibels. In the past, each engineer was free to create a personalized methodology and format for their own link budgets. This worked adequately as long as the same person continued to do the work. Problems arose, however, when link budgets were exchanged between engineers, as formats and assumptions can vary. A standardized link budget software tool should be used that performs all of the relevant calculations and presents the results in a clear and complete manner.

59

Link Budget Example

We will now evaluate a specific example using a simplified link budget containing the primary contributors. This will provide a typical format and some guidelines for a practical approach. Separate uplink and downlink budgets are provided; our evaluation of the total end-to-end link presumes the use of a bent-pipe repeater. This is one that transfers both carrier and noise from the uplink to the downlink, with only a frequency translation and amplification. The three constituents are often shown in a single table, but dividing them should make the development of the process clearer for readers. The detailed engineering comes into play with the development of each entry of the table. Several of the entries are calculated using straightforward mathematical equations; others must be obtained through actual measurements or at least estimates thereof.
60

Link Budget Example

This particular example is for a C-band digital video link at 40 Mbps, which is capable of transmitting 8 to 12 TV channels using the Motion Picture Experts Group 2 (MPEG 2) standard.

61

Link Budget Example: Downlink Budget

The following Table presents the downlink budget in a manner that identifies the characteristics of the satellite transmitter and antenna, the path, the receiving antenna, and the expected performance of the Earth station receiver. It contains the elements that select the desired radio signal (i.e., the carrier) and demodulates the useful information (i.e., the digital baseband containing the MPEG 2 transport bit stream). Once converted back to baseband, the transmission can be applied to other processes, such as de-multiplexing, decryption, and digital-to-analog conversion (D/A conversion).
62

Link Budget Example: Downlink Budget

EIRP=Effective Isotropic Radiated Power

Link Budget Example: Downlink Budget

The following figure provides the horizontal downlink coverage of Telstar V, a typical C-band satellite that serves the United States. Each contour shows a constant level of saturated effective isotropic radiated power (EIRP) (the value at saturation of the transponder power amplifier). Assuming the receiving Earth station is in Los Angeles, it is possible to interpolate between the contours and estimate a value of 35.5 dBW.
64

Link Budget Example: Downlink Budget

The following parameters relate to the significant elements in the link and the power balance equation, all expressed in decibels. Most are typically under the control of the satellite engineer:
Transmit power (Pt); Antenna gain at the peak (Gt) and beam width at the 3-dB point (3dB); Feeder waveguide losses (Lt); EIRP in the direction of the Earth station; Receiver noise temperature (T0); Noise figure (NF).

65

Link Budget Example: Downlink Budget

System noise temperature (Tsys) is the sum of T0 and the noise contribution of the receive antenna (Ta). The overall Earth station figure of merit is defined as the ratio of receive gain to system noise temperature expressed in decibels per Kelvinfor example, G/T The same can be said of EIRP for the transmit case. Reception is improved if either the gain is increased or the noise temperature is decreased; hence the use of a ratio.
66

Link Budget Example: Downlink Budget

Each of the link parameters relates to a specific piece of hardware or some property of the microwave path between space and ground. A good way to develop the link budget is to prepare it with a spreadsheet program. This permits the designer to include the various formulas directly in the budget, thus avoiding the problem of external calculation or the potential for arithmetic error (which still exists if the formulas are wrong or one adds losses instead of subtracting them). Commercial link budget software, such as SatMaster Pro from Arrowe Technical Services, does the same job but in a standardized fashion.

67

Link Budget Example: Uplink Budget

G=10log(110h f

D2

Link Budget Example: Uplink Budget

The repeater in this design is a simple bent pipe that does not alter or recover data from the transmission from the uplink. The noise on the uplink (e.g., N in the denominator of C/N) will be transferred directly to the downlink and added to the downlink noise. In a baseband processing type of repeater, the uplink carrier is demodulated within the satellite and only the bits themselves are transferred to the downlink. In such case, the uplink noise only produces bit errors (and possibly frame errors, depending on the modulation and multiple access scheme) that transfer over the re-modulated carrier. This is a complex process and can only be assessed for the particular transmission system design in a digital processing satellite.

69

Link Budget Example: Overall Link Budget

The last step in link budgeting for a bent-pipe repeater is to combine the two link performances and compare the result against a minimum requirementalso called the threshold. Table presents a detailed evaluation of the overall link under the conditions of line-of-sight propagation in clear sky. We have included an allocation for interference coming from sources such as a cross-polarized transponder and adjacent satellites. This type of entry is necessary because all operating satellite networks are exposed to one or more sources of interference. The bottom line represents the margin that is available to counter rain attenuation and any other losses that were not included in the link budgets. Alternatively, rain margin can be allocated separately to the uplink and downlink, with the combined availability value being the arithmetic product of the two as a decimal value (e.g., if the uplink and downlink were each 99.9%, then the combined availability is 0.999 0.999 = 0.998 or 99.8%).

70

Link Budget Example: Overall Link Budget

71

Link Budget Summary

Over estimate link specification Downlink Budget Uplink Budget Overall Link Budget

72