Mechatronics Systems

By Prof. C. S. P. Rao
Dept. of Mechanical Engineering
N I T, Warangal
 Introduction
Mechatronics is synergistic integration of
mechanical engineering, electronics and intelligent
computer control in design and manufacture of
products and processes
Principles of Construction of MS

The structure
of a traditional
machine

Generalized Scheme of
Machine with
Computer Control of
Movement

e.g.: cutting forces for machining processes,

contact forces and moments of forces at assembly,
reactive force of the liquid jet at hydraulic cutting

determ
non-determ
Mechatronic System Architecture
Examples of Mechatronic Systems

computer disk
drive

clothes washer
 The Core of Mechatronic Approach

• It consists in integrating of components probably

of different physical nature into a uniform
functional module.
in other
words
At the stage of designing one interface, as a separate
device, is excluded out of a traditional structure, but
physical essence of transformation carried out by this
module is kept.
 Basic Advantages in Comparison with
Traditional Means of Automation
• rather low cost;
• ability to perform complicated and precise
movements (of high quality);
• high reliability, durability and noise immunity;
• constructive compactness of modules;
• improved overall dimension and dynamic
characteristics of machines;
• opportunity to rebuild functional modules to
sophisticated systems and complexes.
 Modern Trends of MS Development

• Aviation,
• space and military
techniques;
• Motor car construction
 System Transfer Functions

Why System Transfer Functions are

necessary ?
 Gain = Output / Input

However for many systems the relationship between the

output and input is in the form of a differential equation
and so a statement as just a simple number is always not
possible.

A differential equation can be transformed into an

algebraic equation by using LAPLACE TRANSFORM.
 Convert the behavior of the system
which is in the time domain to s-domain

Then the relationship between output and input

can be defined in terms of transfer function

Transfer function = Laplace transform of O/p / Laplace transform of I/p

 Y(s) X(s)
G (s)

Where G(s) indicates transfer function

Y(s) Laplace transform of input
X(s) Laplace transform of output

By definition G(s) = X(s) / Y(s)

Output transform X(s) = G(s)Y(s)
 First order systems
The differential equation of a first order system is
dx
a1  a0 x  b0 y
dt
The Laplace transform of this, with all initial
conditions zero, is
a1sX(s) + a0X(s) = b0Y(s)

⇒ G(s) = X(s) / Y(s) = b0 / a1s + a0

Where G is the gain of the system when there

are steady state conditions i.e. dx/dt = 0
 This can be rearranged to give
G(s) = (b0/a0)/[(a1/a0)s + 1] = G / (τs+1)
Where τ is the time constant of the system

When a first order system is subjected to a step

input then Y(s) = 1/s and the output transform
X(s) = G(s)Y(s) = G/s (τs+1)= G{(1/ τ)/s(s+(1/ τ))}

Using the inverse transformation

x = G(1-e-t/τ)
Combining cascaded blocks

a
G1 G2

Original diagram

a aG1G2
G1 G2

Equivalent diagram
Moving a take off point ahead a block

a aG
G

Original diagram

a aG
G

aG G

Equivalent diagram
Moving a take off point after a block

a aG
G
a
Original diagram

a aG
G

a 1/G
Equivalent diagram
Eliminating a forward loop

a aG1 aG1+aG2
G1
aG2 +
G22

Original diagram

a aG1+aG2
GG1 1++G
G22
Equivalent diagram
Moving a summing point after a block

a a+b G(a+b)
G
+
b

Original diagram

a aG G(a+b)
G
+

G b
Equivalent diagram
Moving a summing point before a block

a aG aG+b
G
+b

Original diagram

a (aG+b)/G aG+b
G

b/G b
1/G
Equivalent diagram
Moving a take off point beyond a summing
point
a + c
+
a b
Original diagram

a + c
-
b
a +
+
b
Equivalent diagram
 Systems in Series
If a system consists of a number of subsystems
in series as in the figure , then the transfer
function is given by

X1(s) X2(s)
Y(s) X(s)
G1(s) G2(s) G3(s)

G(s) = G1(s) G2(s) G3(s)

Systems with Feedback Loops
Y(s) Error X(s)
+
−
G(s)

Feedback H(s)

H(s)X(s) X(s)
H(s)

Y(s) - H(s)X(s) X(s)

G(s)

G(s) = X(s) / {Y(s)- [H(s)X(s)]}

X(s) / Y(s) = G(s) / [1+G(s)H(s)]

The overall transfer function for

the negative feedback system is

T(s) = X(s) / Y(s) = G(s) / [1+G(s)H(s)]

Role of sensors in Mechatronic
systems
 Sensors and Transducers

Sensor
Element which produces a signal relating
to the quantity being measured
Transducer
An Element when subjected to some
physical change experience a related
change
Transducer term is often used in place of
sensor term …
 Common Errors in sensors
Hysteresis error
Maximum difference in output
for decreasing and increasing
values
Sensors can give different
outputs from the same value
of quantity being measured
according to whether that
value has been reached by:
• A continuously increasing
change
• A continuously decreasing
change
 Non-linear error
For many transducers a linear relationship between the input
and output is assumed over the working range
Error = the maximum difference from the
straight line
 Parameters to Consider When
Selecting a Sensor
The size of the displacement; how close the object should be;
Whether the displacement is linear or Angular
The resolution required
The accuracy required
What material the measured object is made of;
Some sensors will work only with …
The cost
 Displacement, Position and
Proximity Sensors
Displacement sensors
Measure the amount by which some object has
been moved or displaced
Position sensors
Determine the position of some object with
reference to some reference point
Proximity sensors
Determine when an object has moved to within
some particular critical distance of the sensor.
They are devices that give on-off outputs
Displacement Sensors Based on
Strain Gauges

The strain gauges

are attached to
flexible elements in
form of Cantilevers,
Rings or U-shapes.
 Eddy Current Proximity Sensors
• A coil supplied with a.c
current generates and
alternating magnetic field
• Eddy currents are induced in
a metal object that is close
to this field
• Eddy currents produce a
magnetic field that impacts
the impedance of the coil
 Pneumatic Sensors
• Involve the use of compressed air : displacement or the
proximity of an object being transformed into a change in air
pressure

• Range: 3 mm to 12 mm
 Hall Effect Sensors
• The Hall effect applies to a
conductor placed in a magnetic
field
 The moving electrons are
deflected to one side
 A transverse potential difference
is created
V= KH*B*I/t; Where …

• Thus if a constant current source

is used with a Hall sensor => a
Hall voltage I a measure of the
magnetic flux
 Velocity and Motion Sensors

Can be used to monitor linear or angular

velocities and detection motion

Motion sensors are widely used in security

systems and interactive toys
 Tachogenerator

Measures angular
velocity

A magnetic circuit with

an air gap which
periodically changes
 Pyroelectric Sensors
Pyroelectric materials, e.g.
lithium tantalate, are
crystalline materials that
generate charge in
response to heat flow
A polarized pyroelectric
crystal is produced by a
process of heating &
cooling in an electric field:
Fig (a) to (b)
When (b) exposed to
infrared radiation =>
amount of polarization
changes
Effect of temperature on amount of polarization
Tube pressure sensors

LVDT combined with bellows

to give a pressure sensor
with an electrical output
 Tactile Sensor
Applications
Fingertips for robot arms
Touch display screens
Example of tactile sensor
Lower layer of PVDF
Upper layer of PVDF
Middle separating soft film layer

Functionality
a.c. voltage applied to lower layer
a.c. voltage generated by the
upper layer PVDF Tactile sensor
Pressure affects the upper a.c.
voltage
 Liquid Level Devices
Based on direct methods
Float devices
Displacement of a float is
monitor by a potentiometer or a
LVDT, or a strain-gauged el.
Based on indirect methods
Weight measurement of the
vessel using load cells: W =
Ahρg
Differential pressure
measurement using differential
pressure cells
 Need of Signal conditioning
The output signal from the sensor of a
measurement systems needs processing
Problems with the direct sensor’s signal:
Signal is too small
Contains interference that has to be
removed
Is non-linear and must be made linear
Is analog/digital and digital/analog
Is a resistance change and current change
Is a voltage change and current change
Etc.
Signal conditioning processes
Protection …
Converting the signal into
the
right type of signal.…
Getting the right level of
the
signal …
Reducing noise …
 The Basic Element Used in Signal
Conditioning is The Operational Amplifier

Definition: a high gain electronic

amplifying circuit element, that
accomplishes many functions or
mathematical “operations” in
analog circuits.
Behavior assumptions for
Op Amp circuit analysis :
Amplifier operates in its
linear amplifying region

Vout = A( V+ − V− )
Large voltage gain (A)
 Difference between input voltages
of Op Amp is very small because
voltage gain (A) is very large
Vout
V+ − V− = ⇒ V+ ≈ V−
A
 Input impedance (Ri ) is large

V− − V+
i+ = i− = ≈0
Ri
 Inverting Op Amp
Analysis
• We assume that the Op-Amp
gain is very high, effectively
i2
infinity.

i1 e0 • It is assumed that the amplifier

ei operates in its linear amplifying
region.

( for e.g. -10V < eo < 10V )

 Summing Amplifier

An inverting amplifier can accept two or more inputs and

produce a weighted sum
At X, I = IA + IB + IC
and we can see that:
VA VB VC
IA = , I = , and IC =
RA B RB RC
 Differential Amplifier

A differential amplifier is one that amplifies the

difference between the two input voltages

VX R2
=
V2 R1 + R2
 Integrating Amplifier
Vout

t2
Vin

x ∫
t1
Potential Difference across capacitor = VX - Vout
q = CV dq dV dVout
= i = C. i = −C.
dt dt dt
t2
1
( ) ( )
Vout t2 − Vout t1 = − ∫ V .dt
in
RC t1
Practical Applications
Applications:
Perform math operations
inexpensive and lead to easy
designs that are easy to
construct
Power Source
Controllers
Filters
 Controllers
Open loop control system

In the open loop system, the operator expects

that the system output will be proportionally
related to the input signal. But the actual
measurement of the output will not be done
 Closed loop control system

A closed loop control system, can alter its own

output to meet the requirement demanded by the
input signal. The actual system output is
measured by a sensor. Sensory feedback is then
compared with the input signal and the actuators'
output is modified until the output is correct
 Types of Controllers

1. P controller
2. PD controller
3. PI controller
4. PID controller
Response of a proportionally
controlled system
 Proportional Control (P)
In proportional control, the error signal from the error amplifier
causes a response that has a strength proportional to the error.

P controllers exhibit the following advantages:

Fast response to changes in the control process due
to immediate corrective action when an error occurs.
Very stable control process, provided that KP is
properly selected.
P controllers exhibit the following disadvantages:
Steady-state error when disturbances occur, since
only system deviation causes a change in the
Proportional Derivative Control (PD)

eout = Kp ee -KD (dee /dt)

 Control response of PD
Controllers

The control response shows that steady-state

error occurs in PD controllers just as it occurs in P
controllers. Due to the immediate control action
whenever there is a change in the error signal,
the control dynamics is higher than with P
controllers. Despite the very rapid changes in the
controlled variable, the tendency of the control
loop to oscillate decreases. Due to this stabilizing
effect of the D component, a higher KP value can
be chosen than for proportional-only controllers
which reduces steady-state error.
 Applications

PD controllers are employed in all

applications where P controllers are not
sufficient. This usually applies to controlled
systems with greater lags, in which stronger
oscillation of the controlled variable, caused
by a high KP value must be prevented.
 Proportional Integral Control (PI )
A proportional integral controller, sometimes called a
"reset" controller, is intended to solve the problem
of steady state error: The generalized equation for
proportional-integral control is:
eout = Kp ee + Ki ∫ ee dt
where: Ki = the gain setting for the integrator; and
∫e dt = the sum of the error values to the
e
current time
 Control response
As expected, PI control exhibits the positive properties
of P
as well as of I controllers. After rapid corrective action,
the
controlled variable does not show steady-state error.
Depending on how high the Kp and Tn values are,
oscillation of the controlled variable can be
PI controller
reduced, however, applications:
at the expense of control
dynamics.
Control loops allowing no steady-state error.
Examples: pressure, temperature, ratio
control, etc.
Proportional Integral Derivative
Control (PID)
 Control response

The control response of PID controllers is

favorable in systems with large energy
storing components (higher-order controlled
systems) that require control action as fast as
possible and without steady-state error.
Compared to the previously discussed
controllers, the PID controller therefore
exhibits the most sophisticated control
response in the reference system
PID controller applications

Control loops with second - or

higher - order systems that require
rapid stabilization
and do not allow steady-state error.
DIGITAL CONTROLLERS

+ Correction Process
ADC Microprocess DAC
or element
-

Clock

Measurement

DIGITAL CONTROL SYSTEM

 Definition

The term direct digital control is used

when the digital controller, basically a
microprocessor, is in control of closed
loop system

The figure in the previous slide shows the

basics of a direct digital control system
that can be used with a continuous process
A digital controller basically operates the following
cycle of events
1.Sample the measured value
2.compares it with the set value and establishes the error
3.carries out the calculations based on the error value and
stored values of previous inputs and outputs to obtain the
output signal
4.send the output signal to DAC
5.waits until the next sample time before repeating the
cycle
 Advantages

1.Mode of controller can be altered by changing

software without doing any changes in hardware
2. With analogue controller, separate controller
is required for each process, with a
microprocessor many separate processes can be
controlled by a multiplexer
3.Digital control gives better accuracy than
analogue control
PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC
CONTROLLERS
 Personal Computer Versus PLC
• PLCs are constructed for a specific purpose with a
smaller program, whereas PCs perform general tasks.
• PLCs are sequential-type controllers which can
process individual steps in a program in order.
• PLCs do majority of the control jobs.
• PCs handle most of the data and math functions.
• PLCs can be programmed, controlled and operated
by a person unskilled in operating computers.
• The PLC can operate any system that has
input/output devices that go on and off ass well as
any system with variable input/outputs.
Components of a Typical Programmable
Logic Controller (PLC)
Architecture of a PLC
 Peripheral Equipment
The following is a partial list of peripherals:
• Hand-held programmer (loader)
• CRT programmer
• Operator console
• Printer
• Simulator
• EPROM loader
• Cassette loader
• Graphics processor
• Network communication interface
• Programmer/Monitor (PM)
• Racks and chassis
 SPECIFICATIONS OF A PLC

• Power supply :110-120 V/220 - 240 Va.c.,

Single phase 50/60 Hz
• Program language :Ladder logic
• Programming :1000 steps Capacity
• Execution speed :Average 7 s/step
• Program memory :CMOS-RAM built-in,
EPROM can be added

Cont…
Battery back-up Lithium battery, approx. 5 year’s life
Timer 0.1 s timer: 24 points, on-delay
timers (0.1 to 999 s)
0.01s timer: 8 points, on-delay timers
(0.01 to 99.9 s)
Counters 32 points, down counter (0 to 999)
(retentive)
Number of inputs 12 points, all optoisolated
Choice of output Relay output: relay isolated
Transistor output: optoisolated
Triac output: optoisolated
 Standard PLC Scan Cycle

The basic functions of a PLC are to scan a set

of sensor inputs rapidly and repeatedly,
evaluate their logic relationships to define
outputs according to a logic program based
upon a ladder diagram, and set the outputs
according to the programmed logic
 PLC PROGRAMMING

The basic form of programming commonly

used with PLCs is Ladder Programming.
This involves each program task being
specified as though a rung of a ladder. The
ladder diagram consists of two vertical lines
representing the power rails. Circuits are
connected as horizontal lines i.e rungs in a
ladder diagram.
AND LOGIC IN PLC
OR LOGIC
NOR SYSTEM
NAND SYSTEM
EXCLUSIVE OR
 Programming Example
• Robotic Material Handling Control System

• A robot is used to load/unload parts to a machine from a

conveyor. The layout of the system is shown in Figure.
The process can be described as following:

A part comes along the conveyor. When it touches a micro

switch, it is scanned by a bar code reader to identify it .If
the part is the desired one, a stopper is activated to stop it.
A robot picks up the part and loads it onto the machine if it
is idle. Otherwise the robot waits to unload the machine.
Robotic Material Handling
Control System
 Explanation of the program

• Rung 1: If a part arrives, trigger the bar-code

reader.
• Rung 2: If it is a right part, activate the stopper.
• Rung 3: If the stopper is up, the machine is not
busy and the robot is not busy; load the part onto
the machine.
• Rung 4:If the task is completed and the robot is
not busy, unload the machine
ID DESCRIPTION STATE EXPLANATION

MSI Micro switch 1 Part arrives

R1 Output to bar-code reader 1 Scan the part

C1 Input from bar-code reader 1 Right part

R2 Output robot 1 Loading cycle

R3 Output robot 1 Unloading cycle

C2 Input from robot 1 Robot busy

R4 Output to stopper 1 Stopper up

C3 Input from machine 1 Machine busy

C4 Input from machine 1 Task complete

 Examples for Design of
MECHATRONIC SYSTEMS
 TRADITIONAL DESIGN
VS
MECHATRONICS DESIGN
• :
TRADITIONAL DESIGN The temperature control for a domestic
central heating system has been the bi-metallic thermostat of a closed loop
control system. The bending of bi-metallic strip changes as the
temperature changes and is used to operate an on/off switch for the
heating system.
 The bi-metallic thermostat is comparatively crude and the temperature is
not accurately controlled; also devising a method for having different
temperatures at different times of the day is complex and not easily
achieved.

• MECHATRONIC DESIGN: A mechatronic solution to the problem

might be to use a microprocessor controlled system employing perhaps a
thermo-diode as the sensor

 The microprocessor-controlled system can, however, cope easily with

giving precision and programmed control. The system is much more
flexible. This improvement in flexibility is a common characteristic of
mechotronics systems when compared with traditional systems.
 THERMOSTAT

TRADITIONAL DESIGN MECHATRONICS DESIGN

TRADITIONAL THERMOSTAT DESIGN
SECTIONAL VIEW COMPONENTS OF THERMOSTAT
CONVERSION TO MECHATRONIC DESIGN
ADVANTAGES OF MECHATRONICS DESIGN

• HIGH RESOLUTION & ACCURACY

• REDUCES HOUSE HOLD HEATING COST

• SELF CALIBRATING

• FLEXIBLE DESIGN

• ENVIRONMENTAL FRIENDLY
 A PICK-AND-PLACE ROBOT
• The basic form of a Pick-and-Place robot unit
is shown in the Figure (a).
The robot has three axes, about which the
motion can occur i.e. rotation in a clockwise or
counter clockwise direction of the unit on its
base, arm extension or contraction and arm up
and down; also the gripper can open and close.
These movements can be actuated by the use
of pneumatic cylinders operated by solenoid-
controlled valves with limit switches to
indicate when a motion is completed.
Thus the clockwise rotation of the unit might
result from the piston in a linear cylinder Figure (a)
being extended and the counter clockwise
direction by its retraction. Likewise the
upward movement of the arm might result
from the piston in a linear cylinder being
extended and the downward motion from it
retracting; the extension of the arm by the
piston in another cylinder extending and its
return movement by the piston retracting.
• The gripper can be opened or closed by the
piston in a linear cylinder extending or
retracting. Figure (b) shows a basic
mechanism that could be used

Figure (b)
 MECHATRONICS SOLUTION
• Figure below shows how a micro controller could be used to control the
solenoid valves and hence the movements of the robot unit.
 AUTOMATIC CAMERA
• The basic features of the Canon EOS model, automatic, auto-focus,
reflex cameras is shown in the Figure (a) .

• The cameras have interchangeable lenses.

• There is a main microcontroller in the lens housing, the two

communicating with each other when a lens is attached to the camera
body.
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF THE ELECTRONIC SYSTEM
• The metering sensor has six light sensors as
shown in the Figure.

• Signal conditioning is used to obtain the

average value of C1, C2, C3, and C4; the A, B
and average C value are then analyzed to find
the required exposure value. This, for
example, reveals whether the scene is a scene
with a relatively constant luminosity or
perhaps a close up of a person so that there is
bright central zone surrounded by a dark
background.

• The type of program that is used is:

If B is equal to A and C minus B is

less than 0

then exposure set on value of A

if B is equal to A and C minus B is 0

then exposure set on value of C

• For the main microcontroller
Send start command to lens microcontroller
Take input from range sensor
Calculate lens movement required
Send lens movement data to lens microcontroller
Wait for verification of lens movement from
micro controller
Send in-focus signal to viewfinder display

• For the lens microcontroller

Wait for start command from main microcontroller
Determine the initial lens position
Wait for lens movement data from main microcontroller
Read lens movement data
Calculate new lens position
While lens is not in new position drive the motor
Send verification signal of in-focus to main
micro controller
• This information is translated by the
microcontroller into an appropriate
shutter speed and aperture value. If
the camera is operated with the
shutter speed preselected by the
photographer then only the aperture
value is supplied; similarly if the
aperture is preselected then only the
shutter speed is supplied.
The range sensor has two 48-bit linear
arrays of photo detectors. The light
from the object, after passing through
the camera lens, falls on this array
(Figure). When the image is in focus
the spacing of the images on the
detector array is a particular value,
the spacing deviating from this when
the image is out of focus.
The amount of this deviation is used to
give an error signal, which is fed to
the lens microcontroller and used to
give an output to adjust the focusing
of the lens. An encoder is used to
provide feed back of this adjustment
so that the microcontroller knows
when the focusing has been Automatic focusing
completed. The program is thus of the
form:
• The diaphragm drive system is a stepper motor,
which opens or closes a set of diaphragm blades.

• The focusing involves two forms of drive, the arc

form drive and the ultrasonic motor. The arc form
drive uses a brushless permanent magnet
d.c.motor, Hall sensors being used to detect the
position of the rotor.

The drive from the motor is transmitted through

gears to move the focusing lens along the optical
axis. The ultrasonic motor has a series of
piezoelectric elements in the form of a ring (Figure
(a). When a current is supplied to the piezoelectric
element it expands or contracts according to the
polarity of the current.

• By switching the current to the piezoelectric

elements in the appropriate sequence a
displacement wave can be made to travel around
the piezoelectric ring of elements in either a
clockwise or counter-clockwise direction and
consequently rotate a rotor which is in contact
with its surface, hence driving the focusing element

• The control system for the ultrasonic motor is of

the form shown in Figure (b)
 CAR ENGINE MANAGEMENT

• The modern car is likely to include many electronic

control systems involving micro controllers, the
engine control system being one.
• Figure below shows a generalized block diagram of such a system, its aim
being to ensure that the engine is operated at its optimum settings.
• The system consists of sensors supplying, after suitable signal
conditioning, the input signals via drivers to actuate actuators. Figure
below shows some of these elements in relation to an engine; only one
cylinder is being shown.
Thank you