Garis-garis Besar Perkuliahan

1. Sistem Persamaan Linier

2. Matriks dan Operasinya
3. Determinan dan Sifat-sifatnya
UTS
4. Ruang Vektor
5. Basis dan Dimensi
6. Ruang Hasil Kali Dalam
7. Transformasi Linier
UTS
8. Matriks Transformasi Linier
9. Keserupaan
10. Nilai Eigen dan Vektor Eigen
11. Diagonalisasi
DETERMINANTS
Content
3.1 The Determinant Function
3.2 Evaluating Determinant Function
3.3 Properties of the Determinant Function
3.4 Cofactor Expansion & Cramers Rule
3.1 The Determinant Function
Permutation
A permutation of the set of integers
is an arrangement of these integers in some
order without omission or repetition.
{ } n , , 2 , 1
Example 1
There are six different permutations of the set
of integers {1,2,3}. These are
(1,2,3) (2,1,3) (3,1,2)
(1,3,2) (2,3,1) (3,2,1)
List all permutations of the set of integers{1,2,3,4}.

Solution: The different permutation are all possible
paths through the tree from first position to the
last position.
1
2
3 4
3 4 2 4 2 3
4 3 4 2 3 2
2
1 3 4
3 4 1 4 1 3
4 3
4
1 3 1
3
1 2
4
2 4 1 4 1 2
4 2
4 1 2 1
4
1
2 3
2 3 1 3 1 2
3 2 3 1 2
1
Example 2 (1)
Example 2 (2)
We obtain the following list by this process
(1,2,3,4) (2,1,3,4) (3,1,2,4) (4,1,2,3)
(1,2,4,3) (2,1,4,3) (3,1,4,2) (4,1,3,2)
(1,3,2,4) (2,3,1,4) (3,2,1,4) (4,2,1,3)
(1,3,4,2) (2,3,4,1) (3,2,4,1) (4,2,3,1)
(1,4,2,3) (2,4,1,3) (3,4,1,2) (4,3,1,2)
(1,4,3,2) (2,4,3,1) (3,4,2,1) (4,3,2,1)
Inversion
An inversion is said to occur in the permutation

whenever a larger integer precedes a smaller one.
To count the number of inversions, start at the
leftmost integer and count the number of integers to
the right that are smaller. Move to the second integer
and do the same thing. Continue in this fashion until
you get to the end. The total number of inversions is
then the sum of all these.

) ,..., , (
2 1 n
j j j
Example 3
Determine the number of inversions in the following
permutations:
(a) (3,1,4,2) (b) (6,1,3,4,5,2) (c ) (1,2,3,4)
Solution
(a)(3,1,4,2) 2 inversions
(3,1,4,2) 0 inversions
(3,1,4,2) 1 inversion
The permutation (3,1,4,2) has a total of 3 inversions.
(b) There are 5+0+1+1+1=8 inversions in (6,1,3,4,5,2).
(c) There are no inversions in (1,2,3,4).
Even and Odd Permutation
A permutation is called even if the total
number of inversions is an even integer and is
called odd if the total number of inversions is
an odd integer.
Example 4
The following table classifies the various
permutations of {1,2,3} as even or odd.
Permutation # Inversions Classification
(1,2,3)
(1,3,2)
(2,1,3)
(2,3,1)
(3,1,2)
(3,2,1)
0
1
1
2
2
3
even
odd
odd
even
even
odd
Elementary Product
By an elementary product from an n n
matrix A we shall mean any product of n
entries from A, no two of which come from
the same row or column.
Example 5
Find all the elementary products for:
(a) (b)

Solution
(a) Each elementary product must have the form
Since two factors in the product must come from the different
columns, the elementary products are and

(b) Each elementary product must have the form
So, the elementary products are



(

22 21
12 11
a a
a a
(
(
(

33 32 31
23 22 21
13 12
a a a
a a a
a a a



11
.
2 1
- -
a a
.
22 11
a a
21 12
a a
- -
-
3 2 1
a a a
31 22 13 31 23 12 32 23 11
32 21 13 33 21 12 33 22
1
1
a a a a a a a a a
a a a a a a a a a
Signed Elementary Product
For general an matrix A has elementary
products. These are the products of the form

where ranges over all permutations
of {1,2,,n}. A signed elementary product
from A will be an elementary product
that is multiplied by +1 if is an even
permutation or multiplied by -1 if is
an odd permutation.
n n
! n
, ...
2 1
2 1
n
nj j j
a a a
) ,..., , (
2 1 n
j j j
n
nj j j
a a a ...
2 1
2 1
) ,..., , (
2 1 n
j j j
) ,..., , (
2 1 n
j j j
Example 6 (1)
List all the signed elementary products from the matrices
(a) (b)


Solution
(a)



(

22 21
12 11
a a
a a
(
(

33 32 31
23 22 21
13 12
a a a
a a a
a a a



11
Elementary
Product
Associated
Permutation
Even or Odd
Signed
Elementary
Product
(1,2)
(2,1)
even
odd
22 11
a a
21 12
a a
22 11
a a
21 12
a a
Example 6 (2)
(b)

Elementary
Product
Associated
Permutation
Even or Odd
Signed
Elementary
Product
(1,2,3)
(1,3,2)
(2,1,3)
(2,3,1)
(3,1,2)
(3,2,1)
even
odd
odd
even
even
odd
33 22 11
a a a
32 23 11
a a a
33 21 12
a a a
31 23 12
a a a
32 21 13
a a a
31 22 13
a a a
33 22 11
a a a
32 23 11
a a a
33 21 12
a a a
31 23 12
a a a
32 21 13
a a a
31 22 13
a a a
Determinant Function
Let A be a square matrix. The determinant
function is denoted by det, and we define
det(A) to be the sum of all signed elementary
products from A. The number det(A) is
called the determinant of A.
Example 7
Referring to Example 6, we obtain


(a)


(b)
21 12 22 11
22 21
12 11
det a a a a
a a
a a
=
(

32 23 11 33 21 12 31 22 13
32 21 13 31 23 12 33 22 11
33 32 31
23 22 21
13 12 11
det
a a a a a a a a a
a a a a a a a a a a
a a a
a a a
a a a

+ + =
(
(

Mnemonic for Determinant

The determinant is computed by summing the products on
the rightward arrows and subtracting the products on the
leftward arrows.







(a) Determinant of a 2x2 matrix (b) Determinant of a 3x3 matrix



Example 8
Evaluate the determinants of


Solution
Using the mnemonic (a) gives
det(A) = (3)(-2) - (1)(4) = -10
Using the mnemonic (b) gives
det(B) = (-21) + (-440) + (-8) - (44) - (24) - (-70) = -467


3
2
4
1
3 5 4
1
and -1 8
2
-11 7
A B
(
(
(
= =
(
(

(

Notation and Terminology (1/2)
We note that the symbol |A| is an alternative
notation for det(A). For example, the 3x3 matrix
can be written as
33 32 31
23 22 21
13 12
33 32 31
23 22 21
13 12
det
a a a
a a a
a a a
a a a
a a a
a a a



or



11 11
(
(

Notation and Terminology (2/2)

We note that the determinant of A is often
written symbolically as



where indicates that the terms are to be
summed over all permutations
and the + or is selected in each term according
to whether the permutation is even or odd.

=
n
nj j j
a a a A ... ) det(
2 1
2 1

) ,..., , (
2 1 n
j j j
3.2 Evaluating Determinants by
Row Reduction
Theorem 3.2.1
Let A be a square matrix

a) if A has a row of zeros or a column of zeros, then
det(A) = 0.

b) det(A) = det(A
t
)
Theorem 3.2.2
Triangular Matrix
An upper (lower) triangular matrix is a square
matrix in which all the entries below (above) the
main diagonal are zero.

If A is an n n triangular matrix (upper triangular,
lower triangular, or diagonal), then det(A) is the
product of the entries on the main diagonal of the
matrix; that is, det(A) = a
11
a
22
a
nn
.
Example 1
1296 ) 4 )( 9 )( 6 )( 3 )( 2 (
4 0 0 0 0
8 9 0 0 0
6 7 6 0 0
1 5 7 3 - 0
3 8 3 - 7 2
= =
Theorem 3.2.3
Elementary Row Operations
Let A be a square matrix.
(a) If B is the matrix that results from multiplying a row
or column of A by a scalar k, then det(B) = k det(A).
(b) If B is the matrix that results from interchanging two
rows or two columns of A, then det(B) = - det(A).
(c) If B is the matrix that results from adding a multiple
of one row of A onto another row of A or adding a
multiple column of A onto another column of A,
then det(B) = det(A).
Example 2
Introducing Zero Rows
The following computation illustrates the introduction of
a row of zeros when there are two proportional rows.




Each of the following matrices has two proportional
rows or columns; thus, each has a determinant of zero.

.
0
8 4 1 1
5 1 9 3
0 0 0 0
4 2 - 3 1
8 4 1 1
5 1 9 3
8 4 - 6 2
4 2 - 3 1
= =
.
15 12 - 3 9 -
4 1 8 5
2 5 2 - 6
5 - 4 1 - 3
,
4 1 1
5 8 4 -
7 2 - 1
,
8 2 -
4 1 -
The second row is 2 times the
first, so we added -2 times the first row to
the second to introduce a row of zeros
Example 3 (1)
Evaluate det(A) where



Solution
We will reduce A to row-echelon form and apply Theorem 3.2.3

(
(
(

=
1 6 2
9 6 3
5 1 0

-

A
.
1 6 2
5 1 0
3 2 1
3
1 6 2
5 1 0
9 6 3

1 6 2
9 6 3
5 1 0
) det(

= = A
The first and second
rows of A are
interchanged.

A common factor of 3
from the first row was
taken through the
determinant sign
Example 3 (2)

.
165 ) 1 )( 55 )( 3 (
1 0 0
5 1 0
3 2 - 1
) 55 )( 3 (
55 - 0 0
5 1 0
3 2 - 1
3
5 - 10 0
5 1 0
3 2 - 1
3
= =
=
=
=
-2 times the first row was
added to the third row.


-10 times the second row
was added to the third
row


A common factor of -55
from the last row was
taken through the
determinant sign.
Example 4
Compute the determinant of




Solution
We can put A in lower triangular form in one step by
adding -3 times the first column to the fourth to obtain
(
(
=
(
(

1 0 0 3
2 7 0 6
0 6 3 0
7 3 1 5
A
( )
(
(
= = =
(
(

1 0 0 0
2 7 0 0
det det (1)(7)( 26) 546
0 6 3 0
7 3 1 26
A
3.3 Properties of The Determinant
Function
Basic Properties of Determinant (1/2)
Suppose that A and B are n n matrices and k is any scalar.
We begin by considering possible relationships between
det(A), det(B), and det(kA), det(A+B), and det(AB).

Since a common factor of any row of a matrix can be moved
through the det sign, and since each of the n row in kA has a
common factor of k, we obtain

For example,

= det( ) det( )
n
kA k A
11 12 13 11 12 13
3
21 22 23 21 22 23
31 32 33 31 32 33
=
ka ka ka a a a
ka ka ka k a a a
ka ka ka a a a
Basic Properties of Determinant (2/2)
No simple relationship exists between det(A), det(B),
and det(A+B) in general. In particular, we emphasize
that det(A+B) is usually not equal to det(A)+det(B).
Example 1
Consider

+ = + det[ ] det[ ] det[ ] A B A B
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( ( (
= = + =
( ( (

= = + =
+ = +
1 2 3 1 4 3
, ,
2 5 1 3 3 8
We have det 1 det 8 and det 23; thus
det det det
A B A B
A , B , A B
A B A B
Theorem 3.3.1
Let A, B, and C be n n matrices that differ only in a single
row, say the ith, and assume that the ith row of C can be
obtained by adding the corresponding entries in the ith rows of
A and B. Then
det(C) = det(A)+det(B)
The same result holds for columns.
1
11 12 1 11 12 1 11 12 1
1 2 1
1 2 2 1 2 1 2
2 1 2
. . . .
. . . . . . . . . .
. . . .
.
. . . . . . . . . .
. . . .
.
. . . . .
. .
. . . . .
. .
i i i i in in i i in
n n n
n n nn n n nn n n nn
i i in
a a a a a a a a a
a a a a
a b a b a b a a
a a a a a
a b b b + + + + =
Example 2
Using Theorem 3.3.1
By evaluating the determinants,

(
(
(

+
(
(
(

=
(
(
(

+ + + 1 1 0
3 0 2
5 7 1
det
7 4 1
3 0 2
5 7 1
det
) 1 ( 7 1 4 0 1
3 0 2
5 7 1
det









Lemma 3.3.2
If B is an nn matrix and E is an nn
elementary matrix, then

det(EB) = det(E)det(B)
Theorem 3.3.3
Determinant Test for Invertibility
A square matrix A is invertible if and only if
0 ) det( = A
Example 3
Determinant Test for Invertibility
Since the first and third rows of




are proportional, det(A) = 0. Thus, A is
not invertible.
(
(
(

=
6 4 2
1 0 1
3 2 1



A
Theorem 3.3.4
If A and B are square matrices of the same
size, then

det(AB)=det(A)det(B)
Example 4
Verifying that det(AB)=det(A)det(B)
Consider the matrices


2.3.4 by Theorem d guarantee as ) )det( det( ) det( Thus,
-23 ) det( and -23, ) det( 1, ) det(
14
17

8
3 1

1
1
B A AB
AB B A
AB B A
=
= = =
(

=
(

=
(

=
3
2
,
5
,
2
3
Theorem 3.3.5
If A is invertible, then

) det(
1
) det(
1
A
A =

Theorem 3.3.6
Equivalent Statements
If A is an nn matrix, then the following are equivalent.
(a) A is invertible.
(b) Ax = 0 has only the trivial solution.
(C) The reduced row-echelon form of A is I
n.

(d) A is expressible as a product of elementary matrices.
(e) Ax = b is consistent for every n1 matrix b.

(f) Ax = b has exactly one solution for every nx1 matrix b
(g)
0 ) det( = A
3.4 Cofactor Expansion;
Cramers Rule
Minors and Cofactors (1/3)
The determinant of a 3x3 matrix




is the number

(
(
(

=
33 32 31
23 22 21
13 12 11



a a a
a a a
a a a
A
(2)
(1)
) (
) ( ) ( ) det(
) det(
31 22 32 21 13
31 23 33 21 12 32 23 33 22 11
32 23 11 33 21 12 31 22 13
32 21 13 31 23 12 33 22 11
a a a a a
a a a a a a a a a a A
a a a a a a a a a
a a a a a a a a a A
+
=

+ + =
Minors and Cofactors (2/3)
We can get


22 23 21 23 21 22
11 12 13
31 32 32 33 31 33

, ,

a a a a a a
M M M
a a a a a a
= = =
Minors and Cofactors (3/3)
If A is a square matrix, then the minor of entry a
ij
is
denoted by M
ij
and is defined to be the determinant of
the submatrix that remains after the ith row and jth
column are deleted from A. The number (-1)
i+j
M
ij
is
denoted by C
ij
and is called the cofactor of entry a
ij
.

Example 1
Finding Minors and Cofactors (1/2)
16 ) 1 ( is of cofactor The
16
8 4
6 5
8 4 1
6 5 2
4 1 3

is entry of minor The
8 4 1
6 5 2
4 1 3

Let
11 11
1 1
11 11
11
11
= = =
= =

=
(
(
(

=
+
M M C a
M
a
A
Example 1
Finding Minors and Cofactors (2/2)
26 ) 1 ( is of cofactor The
26
6 2
4 3
8 4 1
6 5 2
4 1 3

is entry of minor the Similarly,
32 32
2 3
32 32
32
32
= = =
=

=
+
M M C a
M
a
The Relationship Between Minors and
Cofactors
(
(
(
(
(
(

+ +
+ + +
+ +
+ + +
+
=


array
rd" checkerboa " the of column th and row th the in is and
relating sign the that fact the use to is or the use to whether
g determinin for way quick a is There . that Notice

...
...
...
...
j i M C
M C
ij ij
ij ij
Cofactor Expansions (1/3)
The expression in (2) can be written in terms of
minors and cofactors as




This method of evaluating det(A) is called
cofactor expansion along the first row of A.
(3)
) ( ) det(
13 13 12 12 11 11
13 13 12 12 11 11
C a C a C a
M a M a M a A
+ + =
+ + =
+ +
+
+ +
) 0 3 4 1 ( 1 - - =
4 0
3 1
* 1 = A
12 ) 16 0 ( ) 48 40 ( ) 0 4 ( = + + + =
=
0 8
1 5
* 2
4 8
3 5
* 2
) 8 3 4 5 ( 2 - - = - - ) 8 1 0 5 ( 2
|
|
|
.
|

\
|

=
4 0 8
3 1 5
2 2 1
A
Cofactor
Cofactor Expansions (2/3)
Cofactor Expansions (3/3)
By rearranging the term in (1), we can obtain
(4)




) det(
33 33 23 23 13 13
33 33 32 32 31 31
32 32 22 22 12 12
23 23 22 22 21 21
31 31 21 21 11 11
13 13 12 12 11 11
C a C a C a
C a C a C a
C a C a C a
C a C a C a
C a C a C a
C a C a C a A
+ + =
+ + =
+ + =
+ + =
+ + =
+ + =
Example 2
Cofactor Expansion Along the First Row



Solution

3 1 0
2 4 3 det( )
5 4 2
(
(
=
(
(

Let . Evaluate by cofactor expansion
along the first row of
A A
A
1 0 ) 11 )( 1 ( ) 4 ( 3
4 5
4 2
0
2 5
3 2
1
2 4
3 4
3
2 4 5
3 4 2
0 1 3
) det(
(3) From
= + =

+

= A
The determinant of an nn matrix A can be computed
by multiplying the entries in any row (or column) by
their cofactors and adding the resulting products; that is,
for each



and


n j n i s s s s 1 and 1
nj nj j j j j
C a C a C a A + + + = ... ) det(
2 2 1 1
in in i i i i
C a C a C a A + + + = ... ) det(
2 2 1 1
(cofactor expansion along the jth column)
(cofactor expansion along the ith row)
Theorem 3.4.1
Expansions by Cofactors
Example 3
Cofactor Expansion Along the First column
Let A be the matrix in Example 2. Evaluate
det(A) by cofactor expansion along the first
column of A

Solution

1 ) 3 ( 5 ) 2 )( 2 ( ) 4 ( 3
3 4
0 1
5
2 4
0 1
) 2 (
2 4
3 4
3
2 4 5
3 4 2
0 1 3
) det(
= + =

= A
Example 4
Row Operation and Cofactor Expansion
(1/2)
Evaluate det(A) where




Solution

(
(
(
(

=
3 5 7 3
5 1 4 2
1 1 2 1
6 2 5 3
A

0 8 1 0
3 3 0 0
1 1 2 1
3 1 1 0
) det(

= A
18
3 9
3 3
) 1 (
3 9 0
3 3 0
3 1 1

0 8 1
3 3 0
3 1 1

=
=

=
Cofactor expansion
along the first column
We added the first row
to the third row.
Cofactor expansion
along the first column
Example 4
Row Operation and Cofactor Expansion
(2/2)
Example 5
Entries and Cofactors from Different
Rows (1/2)
'
=
'
=
'
=
(
(
(

=
'
+ +
(
(
(

=
33 33 32 32 31 31
13 12
23 22 21
13 12
33 13 12
33 32 31
23 22 21
13 12
, ,
,
C C C C C C
a a a
a a a
a a a
A
C a a a
a a a
a a a
a a a
A
and that follows It



matrix new a Consider
C C quantity the Consider



Let
11
11
32 31 11
11
Example 5
Entries and Cofactors from Different
Rows (2/2)
11 31 12 32 13 33
11 31 12 32 13 33
11 31 12 32 13 33
Since has two identical rows
0 det( ) C C
C C
C C 0
A
A a a a C
a a a C
a a a C
'
' ' '
'
= = + +
= + +
+ + =
Adjoint of a Square Matrix
If A is any nn matrix and is the cofactor of
then the matrix




is called the matrix of cofactors from A. The
transpose of this matrix is called the adjoint of
A and is denoted by adj(A).
ij
C
,
ij
a
(
(
(
(
(

nn n n
n
n
C C C

C C C
C C C

2 1
2 22 21
1 12 11
Example 6
Adjoint of a 3x3 matrix (1/2)
16 C 10 C 12 C
16 C 2 C 4 C
16 C 6 C 12 C
are of cofactors The
Let
33 32 31
23 22 21
13 12 11
= = =
= = =
= = =
(
(
(

=
A



A
0 4 2
3 6 1
1 2 3
Example 6
Adjoint of a 33 matrix (2/2)

(
(
(
(

(
(
=
(

so that the matrix of cofactors is
12 6 16
4 2 16
12 10 16
and the adjoint if is
12 4 12
( ) 6 2 10
16 16 16
A
adj A
(
Theorem 2.4.2
Inverse of a Matrix Using Its Adjoint
(7)
then matrix, e invertibl an is If
) (
) det(
1
1
A adj
A
A
A
=

Using the Adjoint to Find

the Inverse Matrix
Use (7) to find the inverse of the matrix A in Example 6.
Solution

=
=
(
(
(
(

(
( = =
(
(

(
(

1
det( ) 64
1
( )
det( )
12 4 12
64 64 64
12 4 12
1 6 2 10
6 2 10
64 64 64 64
16 16 16
16 16 16
64 64 64
A
A adj A
A
Theorem 3.4.3
Cramers Rule
If is a system of n linear equations in n unknowns
such that , then the system has a unique
solution. This solution is



Where is the matrix obtained by replacing the entries
in the jth column of A by the entries in the matrix
b x = A
0 ) det( = A
= = =
1 2
1 2
det( ) det( ) det( )
, , ,
det( ) det( ) det( )
n
n
A A A
x x x
A A A
j
A
(
(
(
(
(

=
n
b
b
b

2
1
b
Example 8
Using Cramers Rule to Solve a Linear
System (1/2)
Use Cramers rule to solve




Solution

+ + =
+ + =
+ =
1 3
1 2 3
1 2 3
2 6
3 4 6 30
2 3 8
x x
x x x
x x x
A A
A
1
2
1 0 2 6 0 2
3 4 6 30 4 6
1 2 3 8 2 3
1 6 2
3 30 6
1 8 3
,
,
( (
( (
= =
( (
( (


(
(
=
(
(

A
3
1 0 6
3 4 30
1 2 8
(
(
=
(
(


Example 8
Using Cramers Rule to Solve a Linear
System (2/2)
Therefore


= = =
= = =
= = =
1
1
2
2
3
3
det( ) 40 10
,
det( ) 44 11
det( ) 72 18
,
det( ) 44 11
det( ) 152 38
.
det( ) 44 11
A
x
A
A
x
A
A
x
A