Sinusoids

Period: T
Time necessary to go through one cycle

Frequency: f = 1/T
Cycles per second

Radian frequency: w = 2p f Amplitude: VM

Phase
8 6 4 2 0 -2 0 -4 -6 -8 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05

Leading and Lagging Phase

x1 (t ) X M 1 coswt q
x2 (t ) X M 2 coswt
x1(t) leads x2(t) by q- x2(t) lags x1(t) by q-

Complex Numbers

imaginary axis y q x

real axis

x is the real part y is the imaginary part z is the magnitude q is the phase

More Complex Numbers

Polar Coordinates: A = z q Rectangular Coordinates: A = x + jy

x z cosq

y z sin q

z x y
2

y q tan x
1

There is a good chance that your calculator will convert from rectangular to polar and from polar to rectangular.

Arithmetic With Complex Numbers

We need to be able to perform computation with complex numbers. Addition Subtraction Multiplication Division

Addition
Addition is most easily performed in rectangular coordinates: A = x + jy B = z + jw A + B = (x + z) + j(y + w)

Addition
Imaginary Axis
A+B

Real Axis

Subtraction
Subtraction is most easily performed in rectangular coordinates: A = x + jy B = z + jw A - B = (x - z) + j(y - w)

Subtraction
Imaginary Axis

A-B

Real Axis

Multiplication
Multiplication is most easily performed in polar coordinates: A = AM q B = BM A B = (AM BM) (q )

Multiplication
Imaginary Axis
B

AB

Real Axis

Division
Division is most easily performed in polar coordinates: A = AM q B = BM A / B = (AM / BM) (q )

Division
Imaginary Axis
B

Real Axis

A/B

Phasors
A phasor is a complex number that represents the magnitude and phase of a sinusoid:

X M coswt q

X X M q

Complex Exponentials
A complex exponential is the mathematical tool needed to obtain phasor of a sinusoidal function. A complex exponential is ejwt = cos wt + j sin wt A complex number A = z q can be represented A = z q = z ejq = z cos q + j z sin q We represent a real-valued sinusoid as the real part of a complex exponential. Complex exponentials provide the link between time functions and phasors. Complex exponentials make solving for AC steady state an algebraic problem

Complex Exponentials (contd)

What do you get when you multiple A with ejwt for the real part?

Aejwt = z ejq ejwt = z ej(wt+q

z ej(wt+q = z cos (wt+q + j z sin (wt+q

Re[Aejwt] = z cos (wt+q

Sinusoids, Complex Exponentials, and Phasors

Sinusoid:

z cos (wt+q Re[Aejwt]

Complex exponential:

Aejwt = z ej(wt+q, A z ejq,

Phasor for the above sinusoid:

V=zq