Chapter 3: The Cellular

Level of Organization
What is cell theory?
The Cell - Performs all life functions
-
 2 Types of Cells
Sex Cells
Sex cells (germ cells):
– reproductive cells
– male sperm
– female oocytes (eggs)
Somatic Cells
Somatic cells (soma
= body):
– all body cells except
sex cells
Organelles
Organelle Functions
Organelle Functions
 What are the structures and
functions of the cell membrane?
 Components of the Cell Membrane
Contains lipids, carbohydrates, and functional proteins
Phospholipid Bilayer
Double layer of phospholipid molecules:
– hydrophilic heads—toward watery environment,
both sides
– hydrophobic fatty-acid tails—inside membrane
– barrier to ions and water soluble compounds
Membrane Proteins
Integral proteins:
– within the membrane
Peripheral proteins:
– inner or outer surface of the membrane
6 Functions of Membrane Proteins
Anchoring proteins (stabilizers):
– attach to inside or outside structures
Recognition proteins (identifiers):
– label cells normal or abnormal
Enzymes:
– catalyze reactions
Receptor proteins:
– bind and respond to ligands (ions, hormones)
Carrier proteins:
– transport specific solutes through membrane
Channels:
– regulate water flow and solutes through membrane
 Membrane Carbohydrates
Proteoglycans, glycoproteins, and glycolipids:
– extend outside cell membrane
– form sticky “sugar coat” (glycocalyx)
Functions of Membrane Carbohydrates
– Lubrication and protection
– Anchoring and locomotion
– Specificity in binding (receptors)
– Recognition (immune response)
 Cytoplasm
All materials inside the cell and outside the
nucleus:
– cytosol (fluid):
dissolved materials:
– nutrients, ions, proteins, and waste products
– organelles:
structures with specific functions
What are cell organelles & their functions?
Types of Organelles
Nonmembranous organelles:
– no membrane
– direct contact with cytosol
Membranous organelles:
– covered with plasma membrane
– isolated from cytosol
6 types of nonmembranous organelles:
– cytoskeleton – cilia
– microvilli – ribosomes
– centrioles – proteasomes
 The Cytoskeleton
Structural proteins for shape and
strength
Microfilaments
– Thin filaments composed of the
protein actin:
provide additional mechanical strength
interact with proteins for consistency
Pairs with thick filaments of myosin for
muscle movement
Intermediate
– Mid-sized between microfilaments
and thick filaments:
durable (collagen)
strengthen cell and maintain shape
stabilize organelles
stabilize cell position
Microtubules
– Large, hollow tubes of
tubulin protein:
attach to centrosome
strengthen cell and anchor
organelles
change cell shape
move vesicles within cell
(kinesin and dynein)
form spindle apparatus
 Microvilli
Increase surface area for absorption
Attach to cytoskeleton
 Centrioles in the Centrosome
Centrioles form spindle
apparatus during cell
division
Centrosome: cytoplasm
surrounding centriole

Cilia Power
Cilia move fluids across the
cell surface
 Ribosomes
Build polypeptides in protein
synthesis
Two types:
– free ribosomes in cytoplasm:
proteins for cell
– fixed ribosomes attached to
ER:
proteins for secretion

Proteasomes
Contain enzymes (proteases)
Disassemble damaged proteins for recycling
 Membranous Organelles
5 types of membranous organelles:
– endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
– Golgi apparatus
– lysosomes
– peroxisomes
– mitochondria
 Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
endo = within, plasm = cytoplasm, reticulum =
network
Cisternae are storage chambers within
membranes
 Functions of ER
Synthesis of proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids
Storage of synthesized molecules and
materials
Transport of materials within the ER
Detoxification of drugs or toxins
Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER)
No ribosomes attached
Synthesizes lipids and carbohydrates:
– phospholipids and cholesterol (membranes)
– steroid hormones (reproductive system)
– glycerides (storage in liver and fat cells)
– glycogen (storage in muscles)
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER)
Surface covered with ribosomes:
– active in protein and glycoprotein synthesis
– folds polypeptides protein structures
– encloses products in transport vesicles
 Golgi Apparatus
Vesicles enter forming face and exit maturing face
– Secretory vesicles:
modify and package products
for exocytosis
– Membrane renewal
vesicles:
add or remove membrane
components
– Transport vesicles:
Carry materials to and
from Golgi apparatus
Lysosomes Primary lysosome:
– formed by Golgi
Powerful enzyme-
and inactive
containing vesicles:
enzymes
– lyso = dissolve,
soma = body Secondary
lysosome:
– lysosome fused
with damaged
organelle
– digestive
enzymes
activated
– toxic chemicals
isolated
Exocytosis
– Ejects secretory products and wastes
 Lysosome Functions
Clean up inside cells:
– break down large molecules
– attack bacteria
– recycle damaged organelles
– ejects wastes by exocytosis
 Autolysis
Self-destruction of damaged cells:
– auto = self, lysis = break
– lysosome membranes break down
– digestive enzymes released
– cell decomposes
– cellular materials recycle

Peroxisomes
Are enzyme-containing vesicles:
– break down fatty acids, organic compounds
– produce hydrogen peroxide (H2O2)
– replicate by division
 KEY CONCEPT

Cells: basic structural and functional

units of life
– respond to their environment
– maintain homeostasis at the cellular level
– modify structure and function over time
 Mitochondrion Structure

Mitochondrion Structure
Have smooth outer membrane and folded inner
membrane (cristae)
Matrix:
– fluid around cristae
Figure 3–9a
 Mitochondrial Function
Mitochondrion takes chemical energy from food
(glucose):
– produces energy molecule ATP

Figure 3–9b
How does the nucleus control the cell?
Is the cell’s control center
Nucleus:
– largest organelle
Nuclear envelope:
– double membrane
around the nucleus
Perinuclear space:
– between 2 layers of
nuclear envelope
Nuclear pores:
– communication
passages
 Within the Nucleus
DNA:
– all information to build and run organisms
Nucleoplasm:
– fluid containing ions, enzymes, nucleotides,
and some RNA
Nuclear matrix:
– support filaments
Nucleoli in Nucleus
Are related to protein production
Are made of RNA, enzymes, and histones
Synthesize rRNA and ribosomal subunits
 Organization of DNA
Nucleosomes:
– DNA coiled around
histones
Chromatin:
– loosely coiled DNA
(cells not dividing)
Chromosomes:
– tightly coiled DNA
(cells dividing)

Figure 3–11
 What is genetic code?
DNA and Genes
DNA:
– instructions for every protein in the body
Gene:
– DNA instructions for 1 protein

Genetic Code
The chemical language of DNA instructions:
– sequence of bases (A, T, C, G)
– triplet code:
3 bases = 1 amino acid
 KEY CONCEPT
The nucleus contains chromosomes
Chromosomes contain DNA
DNA stores genetic instructions for
proteins
Proteins determine cell structure and
function
How do DNA instructions become proteins?
Protein Synthesis
Transcription:
– copies instructions from DNA to mRNA (in nucleus)
Translation:
– ribosome reads code from mRNA (in cytoplasm)
– assembles amino acids into polypeptide chain
Processing:
– by RER and Golgi apparatus produces protein
 1. Important Features
a. DNA contains genetic template"
for proteins.
b. DNA is found in the nucleus
c. Protein synthesis occurs in the
cytoplasm - ribosome.
d. "Genetic information" must be
transferred to the cytoplasm where
proteins are synthesized.
 2. Processes of Protein
Synthesis
a. Transcription - genetic
template for a protein is
copied and carried out to the
cytoplasm
b. Translation - template serves
as a series of codes for the
amino acid sequence of the
protein
 3. Steps of Transcription
a. DNA unwinds
b. One side of DNA "codes for a
protein"
c. Genetic code of DNA is a triplet
code of 3 nucleotides or bases
d. Each triplet is specific for the
coding of a single amino acid
A view of transcription

Fig. 14.12 Brum

 Transcription (cont.)
e. Sequence of triplet codes on DNA will
specify the amino acid sequence on the
protein
f. Major step is the synthesis of the coded
"messenger" molecule - mRNA
g. mRNA is "transcribed" from DNA by
complementary base pairing (mRNA has no
thymine, which is replaced by uracil)
h. mRNA passes out to cytoplasm to the
ribosome
fig. 15.5 from Raven
 4. Translation
a. mRNA attaches to the ribosome
b. tRNA's attach to free amino acids
in the cytoplasmic "pool" of amino
acids
c. tRNA carries its specific amino
acid to the ribosome
fig. 15.5 from Raven
 Translation (cont.)
d. tRNA "delivers" its amino acid based on
complementary pairing of a triplet code
(anticodon) with the triplet code (codon) of
the mRNA.
e.Enzyme "hooks" the amino acid to the last
one in the chain forming a peptide bond.
f. Protein chain continues to grow as each
tRNA brings in its amino acid and adds it
to the chain. - This is translation!!
fig. 15.5 from Raven
 TC G TTC A A A
AG T
Coding
C AAGTT
Stran
U C G UU C A A A
mRNA
 TC G TTC A A A
AG T
Coding
C AAGTT
Stran
Nucleus U C G UU C A A A
mRNA

Cytoplasm

Ribosome
 TC G TTC A A A
AG T
Coding
C AAGTT
Stran
Nucleus U C G UU C A A A
mRNA

Cytoplasm

U C G UU C A A A
 TC G TTC A A A
AG T
Coding
C AAGTT
Stran
Nucleus

AA
1 Cytoplasm

GC
A U C G UU C A A A
A’s
N
tR
 TC G TTC A A A
AG T
Coding
C AAGTT
Stran
Nucleus

AA1
Cytoplasm
tRNA’s
AGC
U C G UU C A A A
 TC G TTC A A A
AG T
Coding
C AAGTT
Stran
Nucleus
ATP

AA1 •AA2
Cytoplasm
tRNA’s
AGC AAG
U C G UU C A A A
 TC G TTC A A A
AG T
Coding
C AAGTT
AA1
Stran
Nucleus
ATP

AA1 •AA2 AA3

Cytoplasm
AG
C AAG U U U
U C G UU C A A A
 TC G TTC A A A
AG T
Coding
C AAGTT
AA1
Stran
Nucleus

AGC
AA1 •AA2 AA3
Cytoplasm

AAG U U U
U C G UU C A A A
 TC G TTC A A A
AG T
Coding
C AAGTT
AA1
Stran
Nucleus

AGC
AA1 •AA2 AA3
Cytoplasm

AAG U U U
U C G UU C A A A
 TC G TTC A A A
AG T
Coding
C AAGTT
Stran
AA1
Nucleus

AGC
AA1 •AA2 AA3
Cytoplasm

AA UUU
G
U C G UU C A A A
 The Genetic Code
1. A triplet code comprised of three nucleotide
bases in a sequence.
2. How many triplet codes?
20 common amino acids in a protein
4 diff. bases on DNA A,T,C, & G
| | | |
4 diff. bases on RNA U,A,G, & C

4 things put together in combinations of 3 =

43= 64
Therefore - 64 different DNA triplet codes or RNA
codons
 The 64 triplet codes
60 code for amino acids
4 act as "stop" and "start " codes
Degenerate Code- more than one
triplet code for some amino acids
e.g.,
 The 64 triplet codes
60 code for amino acids
4 act as "stop" and "start codes
Degenerate Code- more than one
triplet code for some amino acids
e.g., GGG
GGU All code for the
GGC amino acid glycine
GGA
Codons

Table 3–2
 Nucleus Controls Cell
Structure and Function
Direct control through synthesis of:
– structural proteins
– secretions (environmental response)
Indirect control over metabolism through
enzymes
 KEY CONCEPT
Genes:
– are functional units of DNA
– contain instructions for 1 or more proteins
Protein synthesis requires:
– several enzymes
– ribosomes
– 3 types of RNA
Mutation is a change in the nucleotide sequence of a gene:
– can change gene function
Causes:
– exposure to chemicals
– exposure to radiation
– mistakes during DNA replication
How do things get in out of cells?
Overcoming the Cell Barrier
The cell membrane is a barrier, but and nutrients
must get in products and wastes must get out
Permeability determines what moves in and out of a
cell. A membrane that lets nothing in or out is
impermeable, lets anything pass is freely permeable,
restricts movement is selectively permeable
Cell membrane is selectively permeable and
allows some materials to move freely but
restricts other materials
– Selective permeability restricts materials based on
size, electrical charge, molecular shape, lipid
solubility
 Transport
Transport through a cell membrane can be:
– active (requiring energy and ATP)
– passive (no energy required)
3 Categories of Transport
Diffusion (passive)
Carrier-mediated transport (passive or active)
Vesicular transport (active)
Solutions
All molecules are constantly in motion
Molecules in solution move randomly
Random motion causes mixing
The 7 methods of transport

Table 3–3
 Concentration Gradient
Concentration is the amount of solute in a
solvent
Concentration gradient:
– more solute in 1 part of a solvent than another
Function of Concentration Gradient
Diffusion:
– molecules mix randomly
– solute spreads through solvent
– eliminates concentration gradient
Solutes move down a concentration gradient
Factors Affecting Diffusion Rates
Distance the particle has to move
Molecule size:
– smaller is faster
Temperature:
– more heat, faster motion
Gradient size:
– the difference between high and low
concentration
Electrical forces:
– opposites attract, like charges repel
Diffusion and the Cell Membrane
Diffusion can be simple or channel-mediated

Simple (1) - Materials

which diffuse through
cell membrane:
– lipid-soluble
compounds (alcohols,
fatty acids, and
steroids)
– dissolved gases
(oxygen and carbon
dioxide)
Channel-Mediated (2) - Materials which pass
through transmembrane proteins (channels):
– are water soluble compounds
– are ions
– factors - passage depends on size, charge,
interaction with the channel
 Osmosis (3)
Osmosis is the diffusion of water across the cell membrane

More solute molecules, lower concentration of

water molecules
Membrane must be freely permeable to water,
selectively permeable to solutes
Figure 3–16
 Osmosis Water Movement
Water molecules diffuse across membrane
toward solution with more solutes
Volume increases on the side with more
solutes
Osmotic Pressure
Is the force of a concentration gradient of water
Equals the force (hydrostatic pressure) needed
to block osmosis
Tonicity
The osmotic effect of a solute on a cell:
– 2 fluids may have equal osmolarity, but different
tonicity
 Isotonic Solutions

A solution that does not cause osmotic flow of

water in or out of a cell
iso = same, tonos = tension
 Hypotonic Solutions
hypo = below
Has less solutes
Loses water through
osmosis
A cell in a hypotonic
solution:
– gains water
– ruptures (hemolysis of red
blood cells)
 KEY CONCEPT
Concentration gradients tend to even out
In the absence of membrane, diffusion
eliminates concentration gradients
When different solute concentrations exist on
either side of a selectively permeable
membrane, osmosis moves water through the
membrane to equalize the concentration
gradients
What are special transport mechanisms?
Carrier-Mediated Transport
Carrier-mediated transport of ions and organic
substrates: facilitated diffusion & active
transport

Characteristics of Carrier-Mediated Transport

Specificity: 1 transport protein, 1 set of
substrates
Saturation limits: rate depends on transport
proteins, not substrate
Regulation: cofactors such as hormones
 Cotransport
2 substances move in the same direction at the
same time
Countertransport
1 substance moves in while another moves out
 Facilitated Diffusion (4)
Passive and carrier mediated

Carrier proteins transport molecules too large

to fit through channel proteins (glucose, amino
acids):
– molecule binds to receptor site on carrier protein
– protein changes shape, molecules pass through
– receptor site is specific to certain molecules Figure 3–18
 Active Transport (5)
Active transport proteins:
– move substrates against
concentration gradient
– require energy, such as ATP
– ion pumps move ions (Na+,
K+, Ca+, Mg2+)
– exchange pump
countertransports 2 ions at
the same time

Sodium-Potassium Exchange Pump - Active transport,

carrier mediated:
– sodium ions (Na+) out, potassium ions (K+) in
– 1 ATP moves 3 Na+
Secondary Active Transport (5)
Sodium Potassium Pump
Na+ concentration gradient drives glucose
transport
ATP energy pumps Na+ back out

Figure 3–20
 Transport Vesicles
Also called bulk transport
Vesicles:
– Endocytosis (6) (endo = into)
– active transport using ATP:
receptor-mediated
pinocytosis
phagocytosis
– exocytosis (7) (exo = out of)
Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis
Receptors (glycoproteins) bind target molecules
(ligands)
Coated vesicle (endosome) carries ligands and
receptors into the cell

Exocytosis is
the reverse
of
endocytosis

Figure 3–21
 Pinocytosis
Pinocytosis (cell
drinking)
Endosomes “drink”
extracellular fluid

Phagocytosis
Phagocytosis (cell eating)
– pseudopodia (psuedo = false,
podia = feet)
– engulf large objects in
phagosomes
Figure 3–22a
 How do cells reproduce?
Cell Life Cycle
Most of a cell’s life is spent in a nondividing
state (interphase)

Body (somatic) cells divide in 3 stages:

– DNA replication duplicates genetic material exactly
– Mitosis divides genetic material equally
– Cytokinesis divides cytoplasm and organelles into 2
daughter cells
Figure 3–3
 Interphase
The nondividing period:
– G-zero phase—
specialized cell functions
only
– G1 phase—cell growth,
organelle duplication,
protein synthesis
– S phase—DNA
replication and histone
synthesis
– G2 phase—finishes
protein synthesis and
centriole replication
 DNA Replication
DNA strands unwind
DNA polymerase attaches complementary
nucleotides

Figure 3–24
Somatic Cell Nuclear Division
Two important processes to
maintain constant number of
chromosomes.
Duplication of chromosomes
Distribution of duplicated
chromosomes into two daughter cells
 1

2 3 5

The Human
6 7 8
9

1 0
1 1

1 2

Karyotype

1 7

1 5 1 6 1 8

1 4

1 3

1 9 2 0 2 1 2 2

X Y
 Importance of Mitosis
2N or Diploid Number
in Humans
46
46
Mother Cell 46
Daughter Cells
Importance of Mitosis (cont.)

a. Cellular replacement
b. Tissue Repair
c. Development
d. Tumor growth
Cell cycle prior to mitosis:
Interphase: nondividing state but cell is
metabolically active.
nucleus clearly visible
one or more nucleoli-nucleolar organizer
regions of chromosomes.
chromosomes long and thin
centriole (animal cells only) located along
margin of nucleus
 Replication of DNA and duplication
of chromosomes occurs in the cell
cycle.
Chromatids

Centromere
Prophase:
prepares the cell for division
chromosomes shorten and thicken
centriole divides into two entities
which migrate down sides of
nuclear envelope, spindle fibers
stretch between centrioles
Prophase: The cell is prepared for
nuclear division
Nuclear envelope has disappeared

Spindle has formed

Chromosomes short and thick

Metaphase: final preparation for
nuclear division
chromosomes line up on equatorial
plate of division
centromeres of chromosomes attached
by kinetocores (protein) to spindle fibers,
microtubules made up of tubulin
 A single chromosome
attached to spindle fibers
Anaphase: chromosome
halves migrate to poles
centromeres divide
chromosome halves migrate to opposite
poles of cell
chromosomes migrate by sliding of
microtubules
Telophase:
reverse of activities of prophase
chromosomes reach poles of
cell
spindle fibers degraded
nuclear membrane reassembled
chromosomes elongate
nucleoli reassembled
Cytokinesis - division of the cell
Cytokinesis occurs by constriction of actin
fibers forming a belt around cell in animal
cells
Plant cells form a cell plate from nuclear
membrane and then cellulose is added to
the plate.
 Animal cell - cytokinesis occurs by
constriction of actin fibers

Plant cell - cytokinesis

occurs by synthesis of
cell plate.
Typical Timing of Mitosis
What regulates cell division?
Mitotic Rate and Energy
Rate of cell division:
– slower mitotic rate means longer cell life
– cell division requires energy (ATP)

Long Life, Short Life

Muscle cells, neurons rarely divide
Exposed cells (skin and digestive tract)
live only days or hours
Chemicals Controlling Cell Division

Table 3–4
 Regulating Cell Life
Normally, cell division balances cell loss
Factors Increase Cell Division
Increases cell division:
– internal factors (Maturation Promoting Factor)
– extracellular chemical factors (growth factors)

Factors Decrease Cell Division

Decreases cell division:
– repressor genes (faulty repressors cause cancers)
– worn out telomeres (terminal DNA segments)
 Cancer

Cancer illness that disrupts cellular controls

and
Oncogenes: mutated genes that cause cancer
produces malignant cells
Cancer Stages - develops in steps:
– abnormal cell
– primary tumor
– metastasis Figure 3–26
 Cell Division and Tumors
Tumor (neoplasm):
– enlarged mass of cells
– abnormal cell growth and division
Benign Tumors
Benign tumor:
– contained
– not life threatening

Malignant Tumors
Malignant tumor:
– spread into surrounding tissues (invasion)
– start new tumors (metastasis)
 KEY CONCEPT
Mutations disrupt normal controls over cell
growth and division
Cancers often begin where stem cells are
dividing rapidly
More chromosome copies mean greater
chance of error
 What makes cells different?
Cell Diversity
All cells carry complete DNA instructions for all
body functions
Cells specialize or differentiate:
– to form tissues (liver cells, fat cells, and neurons)
– by turning off all genes not needed by that cell
All body cells, except sex cells, contain the
same 46 chromosomes
Differentiation depends on which genes are
active and which are inactive