Fallacies

Flaws in the Structure of an Argument

What are fallacies?

Fallacies are defects in an argument. Fallacies cause an argument to be invalid, unsound, or weak. Fallacies can be separated into two general groups: formal and informal.

Formal Fallacies

Formal fallacies are only found in deductive arguments. Deductive arguments are supposed to be air-tight. For a deductive argument to be valid, it must be absolutely impossible for both its premises to be true and its conclusion to be false. With a good deductive argument, that simply cannot happen; the truth of the premises entails the truth of the conclusion.

Formal Fallacies

The classic example of a deductively valid argument is:

1. All men are mortal. (premise) 2. Socrates is a man. (premise) 3. Therefore Socrates is mortal. (guaranteed conclusion)

It is simply not possible that both (1) and (2) are true and (3) is false, so this argument is deductively valid.

Formal Fallacies

Any deductive argument that fails to meet this very high standard commits a logical error, and so, technically, is fallacious. This includes many arguments that we would usually accept as good arguments, arguments that make their conclusions highly probable but not certain.

Arguments that arent deductively valid are said to commit a formal fallacy.

Formal Fallacies

Example of a deductive argument with a formal fallacy:

1. All humans are mammals. (premise) 2. All cats are mammals. (premise) 3. All humans are cats. (conclusion)

Both premises in this argument are true but the conclusion is false. The defect is a formal fallacy and can be demonstrated by reducing the argument to its bare structure:
1. All A are C 2. All B are C

3. All A are B

Formal Fallacies

With deductive arguments, it can be helpful to reduce an argument to its structure.

All chickens are feathered animals. (premise) Clucko is a chicken. (premise) Therefore Clucko is a feathered animal. (guaranteed conclusion)

Formal Fallacies
All chickens are feathered animals. (premise) Quacko is a feathered animal. (premise) Therefore Quacko is a chicken. (non-guaranteed conclusion)

This argument commits a formal fallacy in that its form doesnt guarantee the truth of its conclusion, even if the initial premises are true.

The Problem of Conclusiveness in an Argument Real-world arguments address contestable issues of truth and value that cannot be resolved with mathematical certainty. Disputants can create only more or less persuasive arguments, never conclusive ones.

The Problem of Conclusiveness in an Argument

Real-world Arguments

Unpersuasive

Persuasive

Logically sound Air-tight argument

Conclusive

Informal Fallacies

They are flaws in the structure of an argument. They are embedded in many everyday arguments. They sometimes make fallacious reasoning seem deceptively persuasive

Why Study Informal Fallacies?

Knowledge of informal fallacies is most useful when we run across arguments that we know are wrong, but we cannot quite say why. Knowledge of informal fallacies can help you locate specific weaknesses in others arguments . . . and in your own!

Warning!

Most students who study fallacies begin to find them plentiful in the arguments of those with whom they disagree. Realize that fallacies are most likely being used with equal frequency by you, as well as your friends. Test your integrity by diligently seeking fallacies in your own arguments.

Informal Fallacies: Three Categories

1. Fallacies of Pathos 2. Fallacies of Ethos 3. Fallacies of Logos

Fallacies of Pathos

Rest on flaws in the way an argument appeals to the audiences emotions and values
Argument to the People Appeal to Ignorance Appeal to Popularity Appeal to Pity Red Herring

Argument to the People

Appeal to Stirring Symbols

Appeal to the fundamental beliefs, biases, and prejudices of the audience in order to sway opinion through a feeling of solidarity among those of a group.

Argument to the People

Appeal to Stirring Symbols

The stirring symbol of the American flag

Allegiance to nationalistic values Solidarity of American citizens

Ex: Joe Politician delivering a speech while wearing a suit made out material patterned with the American flag.

Ex: Marilyn Manson wiping his butt on an American flag.

Appeal to Ignorance

Presenting assumptions, assertions, or evidence that the audience is incapable of examining or judging.

Maintaining that because a claim has not been disproved, it must be true.

Appeal to Ignorance

Ex: Researchers have not conclusively shown that there is no monster at the bottom of Loch Ness; therefore, we should expect to see the monster at any time.

Ex: There must be intelligent life on other planets. No one has proven that there isnt.

Appeal to Ignorance

Ex: Genetically modified organisms must be dangerous to our health because science has not proved that they are safe.

Ex: Jones must have used steroids to get those bulging muscles because he cannot prove that he has not used steroids.

Appeal to Popularity
The Bandwagon Appeal

The argument rests on the assertion that since everybody else is doing something, you should do it too. These appeals are fallacious because the popularity of something is irrelevant to its actual merits. These appeals are common in advertising where the claim that a product is popular substitutes for evidence of the products excellence.

Appeal to Popularity
The Bandwagon Appeal

Ex: All the popular, cool kids have tattoos; therefore, I should get a tattoo.

Ex: Everybody who has a Facebook page has a lot of friends; therefore, I should make a Facebook page.

Appeal to Popularity
The Bandwagon Appeal

Ex: Living together before marriage is the right thing to do because most couples are now doing it.

Ex: You should buy a Toyota Camry because it is the best-selling car in the world.

Appeal to Pity

The arguer appeals to the audiences sympathetic feelings in order to support a claim that should be decided on more relevant or objective grounds.

Appeal to Pity

Ex: Professor Rose, Im sorry I couldnt finish my essay. You dont understand how difficult my life is right now. My parents could not afford to send me to college, and I have to work two part-time jobs to pay for my classes and books.

Appeal to Pity

Ex: Honorable Judge, I should not be fined $250 for driving 85 mph in a 25 mph zone because I was distraught from hearing the news of my brothers illness and was rushing to see him in the hospital.

Red Herring

Refers to the practice of throwing an audience off track by raising an unrelated or irrelevant point.
The name derives from the practice of using a red herring (a very smelly fish) to throw dogs off from a scent that they are supposed to be tracking.

Red Herring

Ex: Jacks girlfriend asks, Where were you last night? Jack answers, I sure am glad to see you. You look extra beautiful today!

Ex: Question to politician, Whats your stand on gun control? Politicians reply, Im for family values.

Red Herring

Ex: I dont believe we should elect this candidate because she would have to put her children in daycare.

Fallacies of Ethos

Fallacies of Ethos = Rest on a flawed relationship between the argument and the character of those involved in the argument.

Often these fallacies attack character or use character instead of evidence for proof.

Appeal to False Authority

The arguer appeals to the authority of a popular person rather than a knowledgeable one. Many advertisements are based on this fallacy. Testimony to support an argument should come from a person competent in the field.

Appeal to False Authority

Kobe Bryant says that Wheaties cereal keeps him on his game; therefore, Wheaties cereal is a good cereal. Real evidence about the quality of Wheaties cereal would include specific information about its nutritional content rather than testimony from a hired athlete.

Appeal to False Authority

My favorite actor, who appeared in a movie about AIDS, has testified that the HIV virus doesnt really cause AIDS and that there has been a cover-up. So, I think that AIDS must be caused by something other than HIV, and the drug companies are hiding it so that they can make

money from expensive anti-HIV drugs.

The above argument bases its conclusion on the testimony of an actor, apparently because he appeared in a movie on the topic. Legitimate testimony on the nature of AIDS would have to come from doctors or scientists.

Appeal to False Authority

Tom Cruise says that postpartum depression can be best treated with vitamins because anti-depressant drugs are dangerous. Therefore, all women who claim they have postpartum depression should stop taking antidepressants and start taking vitamins.

Ad Hominem
Appeal to the person

Arguments that attack the character of the arguer rather than the argument itself
Name-calling (referring to a disputant by unsavory names) Appeal to prejudice (applying ethnic, racial, gender, or religious slurs to an opponent) Guilt by association (linking the opposition to extremely unpopular groups or causes) Poisoning the Well (discrediting an opponent or an opposing view in advance)

Ad Hominem
Appeal to the person

Name-calling
Ex: OJ Simpson claims that he is innocent, but hes a wife beater. Ex: Hugh Hefner, founder of Playboy magazine, has argued against the censorship of pornography. But Hefner is an immature, self-indulgent millionaire who never outgrew the adolescent fantasies of his youth. His argument is worthless. Ex: All wars are not wrong. The people who say so are cowards.

Ad Hominem
Appeal to the person

Appeal to prejudice
Ex: Because he is extremely wealthy, our mayor cannot properly represent this city. Ex: I reject what Father Rolly has to say about the ethical issues of abortion because he is a Catholic priest. After all, Father Rolly is required to hold such views. Ex: Of course she is in favor of Affirmative Action. What do you expect from a black woman?

Ad Hominem
Appeal to the person

Guilt by Association
Ex: Of course you support medical marijuana. All of your friends are a bunch of pot-head hippies.

Ex: Professor Smith has argued against the theory of evolution. But hes a member of the Communist Bikers Association. I refuse to listen to him!

Ad Hominem
Appeal to the person

Poisoning the Well

Ex: You are told, prior to meeting him, that your friends boyfriend is a poseur and a mooch. When you meet him, everything you hear him say is tainted.

Ex: Before I leave the floor to the next speaker, I must remind you that persons who oppose my plan do not have the best interests of the working people in their hearts.

Straw Man
Greatly oversimplifying an opponents argument in order to make it easier to refute or ridicule Diverts attention from the real issue

The name comes from the practice of stuffing dummies and scarecrows with straw. When one attacks an opponent by putting words into the opponents mouth, one makes up a dummy position. But just as beating up a scarecrow doesnt demonstrate any athletic accomplishment, beating up a straw man in an argument doesnt demonstrate anything.

Straw Man

Ex: You many think that levying confiscatory taxes on homeless peoples cardboard dwellings is the surest way out of a recession, but I dont.

Ex: While my opponent would like to empty our prisons of serial killers, I hold to the sacred principles of compensatory justice.

Fallacies of Logos

Rest on flaws in the relationship among statements in an argument

Hasty Generalization

Making a broad generalization on the basis of too little evidence Traditionally, faulty generalizations have been labeled either hasty or unrepresentative.

Hasty Generalization

Ex: Yesterday I met the most remarkable person. He is kind, considerate, sensitive, and thoughtful.

Ex: I talked to five people in my neighborhood, and all of them said they had guns. The whole city must be armed.

Hasty Generalization

Ex: My cousin is a college student, and he doesnt care the least bit about politics. Students these days are terribly apathetic. Ex: Jean writes poetry, and shes very sensitive and frequently depressed. People who write poetry are sensitive and prone to depression.

Post Hoc, Ergo Propter Hoc

After This, Therefore Because of This

Occurs when a sequential relationship is mistaken for a causal relationship Confusing correlation for cause Ex: Event A occurred before Event B; therefore, Event A must have caused Event B.

Post Hoc, Ergo Propter Hoc

After This, Therefore Because of This

Ex: Governor X took office in 2008. In 2009, the state suffered a severe recession. Therefore, Governor X should not be re-elected.

Ex: Cramming for a test really helps. Last week I crammed for a psychology test, and I got an A on it.

Post Hoc, Ergo Propter Hoc

After This, Therefore Because of This

Superstition is often based on this fallacy.

Ex: Since I walked under that ladder yesterday, Ive lost my wallet and received a speeding ticket. Ex: Everything was going fine until the lunar eclipse last month; thats why the economy is in trouble.

Begging the Question

Circular Reasoning

Supporting a claim with a reason that simply restates the claim in different words
Ex: Bungee-jumping is dangerous because its unsafe. Ex: Women should not be permitted to join mens clubs because the clubs are for men only.

Begging the Question

Circular Reasoning

Ex: Abortion is murder because it is the intentional taking of the life of a human being.
Because murder is defined as the intentional taking of the life of a human being, the argument is circular.

False Dilemma Either/Or

Oversimplifying a complex issue so that only two choices appear possible No alternative, middle-ground, or compromise positions are acknowledged. Often one of the choices is made to seem unacceptable , so the only remaining option is the other choice.
Ex: Its my way or the highway.

False Dilemma Either/Or

Ex: Love football or youre not a man. Ex: A woman can either be a mother or have a career. Ex: Either we get tough with drug users, or we legalize all drugs.

False Dilemma Either/Or

Ex: Either we allow embryonic stem cell research, or we condemn persons with diabetes, Parkinsons disease, or spinal injuries to a life without a cure.

Slippery Slope
Based on the fear that once we put a foot on a slippery slope heading in the wrong direction, we will have to keep going. The controlling metaphor is of a slick mountainside without places to hold on rather than of a staircase with numerous stopping places. Often functions as a scare tactic

Slippery Slope

Ex: Look, Joe, no one feels worse about your need for open-heart surgery than I do. But I still cannot let you turn this essay in late. If I were to let you do it, then I would have to let everyone turn essays in late.

Slippery Slope

Ex: We dont dare legalize marijuana. If we do, well have to legalize cocaine, then ecstasy, and then heroin. Finally, all hard hard drugs will be available anywhere to anybody.

False Analogy

Arguments by analogy use a comparison as though it were evidence to support a claim. An argument by analogy is only as strong as the comparison on which it rests. The false analogy fallacy is committed when the comparison is not strong enough.

False Analogy

Ex: There is no convincing evidence to show that cigarette smoking is harmful. Too much of anything is harmful. Too much Jell-O is harmful.

False Analogy

Ex: Mountain climber talking to his mother, I dont want to die falling off a rock. But you can kill yourself falling in the bathtub, too.

False Analogy

Ex: In his autobiography, Tommy Chong writes that when DEA (Drug Enforcement Administration) agents raided his house he saw himself as Anne Frank talking to Herr Mengele. . . For the first time, I felt like I could understand what the Jews suffered under Hitler, and this was happening in America in 2003.

Non Sequitur
It Does Not Follow

Making a claim that does not follow logically from the premises or is supported by irrelevant premises. The arguer seems to make an inexplicably illogical leap. There is a disconnect between the reasons and the claim.

Non Sequitur
It Does Not Follow

Ex: Violent video games have some social value because the Army uses them for recruiting.

There may be an important idea emerging here, but too many logical steps are missing.

Non Sequitur
It Does Not Follow

Ex: Our university has one of the best faculties in the U.S. because a Nobel Prize winner used to teach here.
How does the fact that a Nobel Prize winner used to teach at our university make its present faculty one of the best in the U.S.?

Non Sequitur
It Does Not Follow

Ex: Its a beautiful day! We dont need to be in class. Ex: The professor in the Hawaiian shirt and flip flops must be an easy grader.

Non Sequitur
It Does Not Follow

Ex: The man with the powerful new computer must be highly skilled in the use of computer technology.

Ex: Emily is on academic probation, but her hours at work have changed, so she will do better in her classes now.

Non Sequitur
It Does Not Follow

Ex: Donald Trump, the billionaire real-estate developer, in considering a run for president in 2000, told an interviewer:
My entire life, Ive watched politicians bragging about how poor they are, how they came from nothing, how poor their parents and grandparents were. And I said to myself, if they can stay so poor for so many generations, maybe this isnt the kind of person we want to be electing to a higher office. How smart can they be? Theyre morons. Do you want someone who gets to be president and thats literally the highest paying job hes ever had?

As a brief glance at U.S history shows, it does not follow that men of small success in the world of commerce are unfit to make sound decisions about matters of state.