Thermal Processing of Metal Alloys

Outline
Part I: Thermal Processing of Metal Alloys
Heat Treatment Precipitation Hardening

Part II: Metal Alloys and Fabrication of Metals

Outline
Heat Treatment of Steels

Hardenability Influence of quenching medium, specimen size, and geometry

Annealing Processes o Annealing of ferrous alloys

o Full annealing o Normalizing

o o Process annealing Stress relief

Precipitation Hardening

160 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0

The complete isothermal transformation diagram for an iron-carbon alloy of eutectoid composition.

A: austenite B: bainite M: martensite P: pearlite

10

100

Heat Treatment of Steels

Conventional heat treatment procedures for
producing martensitic steels involves

continuous and rapid cooling of an austenitized

specimen in some type of quenching medium, such as water, oil, or air

The optimum properties of a steel that has been

quenched and then tempered can be realized only if,

during the quenching heat treatment, the

specimen has been converted to a high content of martensite

Why hardness changes with position?

The cooling rate varies with position

Adapted from Fig. 11.12, Callister 6e.

Effect of Quenching Medium

Medium
air oil Severity of Quench small moderate large Hardness small moderate large

water

The severity of quench: water > oil > air

Effect of Part Size

Radial hardness profiles for (a) 50 mm (2 in.) diameter cylindrical 1040 and 4140 steel specimens quenched in mildly agitated water, and (b) 50 and 100 mm (2 and 4 in.) diameter cylindrical specimens of 4140 steel quenched in mildly

Effect of Part Geometry

When surface-to-volume ratio increases
cooling rate increases hardness increases

Position Cooling rate center small surface large

Hardness small large

Annealing Processes
Annealing: a heat treatment in which a material is
exposed to an elevated temperature for an extended time period and then slowly cooled.

Three stages of annealing

1. Heating to the desired temperature 2. Holding or soaking at that temperature 3. Cooling, usually to room temperature

Purposes for Annealing

1. Relieve Internal Stresses

Internal stresses can build up in metal as a

result of processing.

Stresses may be caused by previous

processing operations such as welding, cold working, casting, forging, or machining.

If internal stresses are allowed to remain in a

metal, the part may eventually distort or crack.

Annealing helps relieve internal stresses and

reduce the chances for distortion and cracking.

Purposes for Annealing (Contd)

2. Increasing Softness, Machinability, and Formability A softer and more ductile material is easier to machine in the machine shop.

An annealed part will respond better to forming operations.

3. Refinement of Grain Structures

After some types of metalworking (particularly cold working), the crystal structures are elongated. Annealing can change the shape of the grains back to the desired form.

The IronIron Carbide Phase Diagram

2.14

E 4.30

L + Fe3C

F G

M N O
0.76 0.022

H Cementite Fe3C

C
6.70

Temperature Regime of Steel Heat Treatment

FIG. 11.9 The iron-iron carbide phase diagram in the vicinity of the eutectoid, indicating heat treating temperature ranges for the plain carbon steels.

Most heat treating operations begin with heating the alloy

into the austenitic phase field to dissolve the carbide in the iron

Steel heat treating practice rarely involves the use of

temperatures above 1040C

Full Annealing
Full annealing is the most basic of the annealing
processes and is often simply referred to as annealing.

Utilized for low- and medium-carbon steels that will

be machined or will experience extensive plastic deformation during a forming operation

Full Annealing
The alloy austenitized by
heating to 15 to 40C above the A3 or A1 lines until equilibrium is achieved (i.e., the alloy changes to austenite), and then furnace cooled soak the material for 1h at the annealing temperature for every inch of thickness (a rule of thumb)

The soaking time: to

A cooling rate of 100F/hr

is typical for full annealing.

FIG. 11.9 The iron-iron carbide phase diagram in the vicinity of the eutectoid, indicating heat treating temperature ranges for the plain carbon steels.

Microstructure after Full Annealing

Microstructure product: coarse pearlite in addition to
any proeutectoid phase soft and ductile

FIG. 11.9 The iron-iron carbide phase diagram in the vicinity of the eutectoid, indicating heat treating temperature ranges for the plain carbon steels.

Process Annealing (or Intermediate Annealing)

A heat treatment used to negate the effects of cold
work, i.e., to soften and increase the ductility of a previously strain-hardened metal

In process annealing, parts are not as completely

softened as they are in full annealing, but the time required is considerably lessened.

Process Annealing (or Intermediate Annealing)

Process annealing is frequently used as an
intermediate heat-treating step during the manufacture of a part. A part that is stretched considerably during manufacture may be sent to the annealing oven three or four times before all of the stretching is completed.

Forging

Rolling

Process Annealing (Contd)

Recovery and recrystallization processes are allowed
to occur
1. Recovery

Some of the stored internal strain energy is relieved by virtue of dislocation motion, as a result of enhanced atomic diffusion at the elevated temperature.

2.

Recrystallization

Recrystallization is the formation of a new set of strain free and equiaxed grains that have low dislocation densities and are characteristic of the precold-worked condition.

Ordinarily a fine-grained microstructure is desired; the heat treatment is terminated before appreciable grain growth has occurred.

Alteration of Grain Structure as a Result of Plastic Deformation

FIG. 7.11 Alteration of the grain structure of a polycrystalline metal as a result of plastic deformation. (a) Before deformation the grains are equiaxed. (b) The deformation has produced elongated grains.

Recrystallization
New crystals are formed that:
have a small dislocation density are small consume cold-worked crystals
0.6 mm 0.6 mm

33% cold worked brass

New crystals nucleate after 3 sec. at 580C.

Further Recrystallization
All cold-worked crystals are consumed.

0.6 mm

0.6 mm

After 4 seconds

After 8 seconds

Normalizing
The name normalizing
comes from the original intended purpose of the process to return steel to the normal condition it was in before it was altered by cold working or other processing.

Heating the alloy to 55 to

85C above the A3 or Acm and holding for sufficient time so that the alloy completely transforms to austenite, followed by air cooling

The iron-iron carbide phase diagram in the vicinity of the eutectoid, indicating heat treating temperature ranges for the plain carbon steels.

Normalizing (Contd)
To refine the grains and produce a more uniform and
desirable size distribution for steels that have been plastically deformed

Normalizing does not soften the material as much as

full annealing does.

The cooling process does not leave the material as

ductile or as internally stress-free.

A normalized part will usually be a little stronger,

harder, and more brittle than a full-annealed part.

Stress Relief Annealing

Internal residual stresses may develop in metal
pieces:

Plastic deformation processes (machining and

grinding)

Non-uniform cooling of a piece that was

processed or fabricated at temperature (welding or casting) an elevated

A phase transformation that is induced upon

cooling wherein parent and product phases have different densities

Distortion and warpage may result if these

residual stresses are not removed.

Stress Relief Annealing (Contd)

The work piece is heated to the recommended
temperature, held long enough to attain a uniform temperature, and finally cooled to room temperature slowly

The annealing temperature is ordinarily a relatively

low one such that effects resulting from cold work and other heat treatments are not affected

Furnaces Widely Used in Heat Treatment of Steels

This electrical heat-treating furnace is used to heat treat strip steels

Furnaces Widely Used in Heat Treatment of Steels

The interior of this roller hearth-treating furnace has cast heating elements on the top, bottom, and side walls.

Furnace Fixtures

Fabricated by welding wrought components of a 35%Ni-18%Cr alloy

Examples of furnace baskets.

Temperature Control Systems

Process temperature should be controlled to within
~ 2.5C.

Although this close range is sometimes possible, a

more practical control range is nearer 5C.

Temperature Sensors
Temperature Measurement Temperature Control

Three Major Components in A Temperature Control System

Temperature Sensors
Thermocouples are the most widely used sensors for
measuring temperatures of heat treating furnaces.

Type K is, by far, the most widely used.

Three Major Components in A Temperature Control System

Temperature Measurement
Measurement instruments
measure the output signal of the temperature sensor & convert it to a temperature indication.

Temperature Control
A temperature controller must provide sufficient energy to
satisfy process requirements, even though operating conditions vary.

The controller set point (that represents the desired

temperature) is compared with the actual temperature.

Based on this comparison, the controller regulates the

energy flow to the process.

Comparison of Annealing, Normalizing, & Quenching

Annealing & Normalizing Slow cooling process Quenching Rapid cooling process

Softens and weakens metal Hardens and strengthens metal Produces ductility Reduces internal stresses Produces brittleness Causes internal stresses

Helps prevent cracking and Increases chances of cracking distortion and distortion

Effects of Annealing, Normalizing, and Quenching

Annealing Normalizing Air Oil Water Quenching Quenching Quenching Harder and stronger More brittle More internal stress

Softer, less strong More ductile Less internal stress

Less distortion, cracking More distortion, cracking