Tools to cut and scrape go back at least 150,000 yrs

Machining

Outline
1. Basics
2. Machine Configurations

3. Production Configurations
4. Processing Planning 5. Environment

Basics: Machining Process

Single point machining

Turning, boring, trepanning, planing

Multiple point machining

Drilling, milling, reaming, sawing, broaching, grinding

Tool Stationary: turning, boring

Tool moves: sawing, milling, drilling, broaching

Work Piece moves: milling, boring Both move: milling, 5 axis milling

Machining processes
Turning
*

Grinding
V D Grinding wheel Grains

Workpiece

Milling
* Cutter

Arbor Spindle

Spindle Shank End mill

Arbor

Horizontal Slab milling

Face milling

End milling

* Source: Kalpakjian, Manufacturing Engineering and Technology

Machine Tools
*
* Headstock

Horizontal-spindle surface grinder

Spindle speed selector

Spindle Ways Cross slide Carriage

Feed change gearbox

Center
Tailstock quill Tailstock

Compound rest and slides (swivels)

Head

Apron Bed

Lead screw
Feed rod Column Table Saddle Knee

Basic Lathe

Vertical-Spindle Mill
* Source: Kalpakjian, Manufacturing Engineering and Technology

Base

Basic Mechanics Issues

Power, Forces Heat, Tool materials, Rate limits

Temperature

Surface finish

See Video on Plastic Deformation

Basic Machining Mechanism

Shear takes place in a narrow zone near the tool tip at angle , the tool has rake angle , the resulting shears is From geometry,

= cot( ) + tan (

- )

becomes large for small , and small or negative

Basic Machining Mechanism

Basic Machining Mechanism

F V ower
Chip
- + tc

d(work) work dt
S

work
V

Rake angle

pecific energy
plastic work

vol uS (65 to 80%)

friction

Tool
t0

up
up
1

Shear plane

Shear angle Workpiece

Approximation us ~ H (Hardness)

Specific energy, uS

For comparison see Table 26.2 for grinding

Basic Machining Mechanism

Hence we have the approximation;

Power us X MRR
MRR is the Material Removal Rate or d(Vol)/dt Since Power is P=F*V and MRR can be written as, d(Vol)/dt = A * V
Where A is the cross-sectional area of the undeformed chip, we can get an estimate for the cutting force as,

F us

Note that this approximation is the cutting force in the cutting direction.

Cutting Force Directions in Milling

Fcn Fp

Fc
Fp Fcn Fc

Fp Fcn Fc Fp

Fc ~ H A c
(Tangential Cutting Force ~ Chip Cross-section Hardness)

Fcn

Fc

Feed per Tooth and MRR

= rotational rate (rpm)

Top view of face milling With 4 tooth cutter

v (m/s)

w = width of cut (m)

f = feed per tooth (m)

Side view

Consider the workpiece moving into the cutter at rate v. In travel time t the The travel for one tooth is feed is v t. The time for one rotation is t = 1/4 Hence the feed per tooth is f = v/4 . In general, a cutter may have N teeth, so the feed per tooth is The material removal rate (MRR) is,

f=v/N

MRR = v w d
where d is the depth of the tool into the workpiece.

Ex) Face milling of Al Alloy

vw

N = 4 (number of teeth) D = 2 (cutter diameter) Let w = 1 (width of cut), d=0.1 (depth of cut) f = 0.007 (feed per tooth), vs = 2500 ft/min (surface speed; depends on cutting tool material; here, we must have a coated tool such as TiN or PCD)

d w

The rotational rate for the spindle is = vs / D = 4775 rpm Now, we can calculate vw, workpiece velocity, f = vw / N => vw= 134 [in/min] Material removal rate, MRR = vw*w*d = 13.4 [in3/min] Power requirement, P = us*MRR = 5.36 [hp] Cutting force / tooth, F ~ us*d*f = 111 [lbf]
us from Table 21.2 (20.2 ed 4); Note 1 [hp min/in3] = 3.96*105 [psi]

Ex) Turning a stainless steel bar

f D=1 d Tool

Recommended feed = 0.006 (Table 23.4 (22.4)) Recommended surface speed = 1000 ft/min = 1000 ft/min = 3820 rpm 1 1ft/12

Let d = 0.1

Material removal rate, MRR = 0.1 0.006 1 3820) = 7.2 [in3/min] Power requirement, P = us*MRR = 1.9*7.2 = 13.7 [hp] Cutting force / tooth, F ~ us*d*f = (1.9*3.96*105)*(0.1*0.006) = 450 [lbf]
us from Table 21.2 (20.2 ed 4); Note 1 [hp min/in3] = 3.96*105 [psi]

Temperature Rise in Cutting

Adiabatic Temperature Rise: c p T = uS Note : uS ~ H, Hardness Tadiabatic > Tmelt (Al & Steel) Interface Temperature: T = 0.4 (H / cp)(v f / )0.33
Typical temperature distribution in the cutting zone

v = cutting speed f = feed = thermal diffusivity of workpiece Note v f / = Pe = convection/conduction

Cutting tool materials & process conditions

Cutting Speed (ft/min)

Temperature ( F)

Year

Feed (in/rev)

Limits to MRR in Machining

Spindle Power - for rigid, well supported parts Cutting Force - may distort part, break delicate tools

Vibration and Chatter - lack of sufficient rigidity in the machine, workpiece and cutting tool may result in self-excited vibration Heat - heat build-up may produce welding, poor surface finish, excessive work hardening; can be reduced with cutting fluid

Typical Material Removal Rate

10-4 10-3 10-2 10-1 1 10 102[cm3/sec] EBM1 EDM1,2 Machining 25A, 6um RMS1 Grinding3 Creep Feed2 Grinding Rough milling of Al > 35hp

LASER3 Chem. Milling2 Note: 1cm3/sec = 3.67 in3/min 1m X 1m area

High speed Machining and Assembly

High Speed Machined aluminum parts are replacing built-up parts made by forming and assembly (riveting) in the aerospace industry. The part below was machined on a 5-axis Makino (A77) at Boeing using a 8-15k rpm spindle speed, and a feed of 240 ipm vs 60 ipm conventional machining. This part replaces a build up of 25 parts. A similar example exists for the F/A-18 bulkhead (Boeing, St. Louis) going from 90 pieces (sheetmetal build-up) to 1 piece. High speed machining is able to cut walls to 0.020 (0.51mm) without distortion. Part can be fixtured using window frame type fixture.

MRR = f d * N

Variation Vs Part Size

Machine tool configurations

Machine tool
number of axes, spindles, serial and parallel configurations

Cutter geometry
Form tool, cutter radius, inserts, tool changers

Software
flexibility, geometrical compensation, look ahead dynamics compensation

Head

Column

Table Saddle Knee

Base

Machining Part 2
System Configurations Part Holding / Fixturing Process Planning Environment

Simple Classification Scheme for Part Geometry

Primary Rotational

Primary Rotational with secondary

Primary Planar

Primary Planar with secondary

Primary Rotational and Planar

Primary Rotational and Planar with secondary

Secondary

Machining Systems Classification

Job shop fixturing

Vise

Faceplate on lathe

T-slot & clamps on mill

Production

Indexing Trunnion

Quad-Vertical combination Chuck 8-station Vise

Modular Fixtures Collet Index Fixture

Hydraulic Pallet Fixture

SMED
Single-Minute-Exchange-Die
Shigeo Shingo, A Study of the Toyota Production Systems

Stage1: Separating Internal and External Setup Stage2: Converting Internal to External Setup Stage3: Streamlining all aspects of the setup operation

Standardized Fixtures

Process planning
How would you machine this part?

Assumption: 1. We begin with a stock size of 2.5 X 2.25 X 12 2. This will be manufactured in a job shop for very low quantity We will use: - A bandsaw to roughly cut the stock to size - A manual vertical mill to create the planar features and the holes - A belt sander to sand the radii ( assuming the tolerance is not very high)

Machine

Operation

Horizontal band saw

Saw stock to ~4.125

Mill two ends to length 4 Mill width to 2

Manual vertical mill

Mill out 2X1.5X4 Drill hole 1 diameter Bore 1 radius

Belt sender

Sand 0.5 radii

Machine
Horizontal band saw

Operation
Saw stock to ~4.125

Mill two ends to length 4 Manual vertical mill

Mill width to 2 Mill out 2X1.5X4 Drill hole 1 diameter Bore 1 radius Belt sender Sand 0.5 radii

Machine
Horizontal band saw

Operation
Saw stock to ~4.125 Mill two ends to length 4

Manual vertical mill

Mill width to 2
Mill out 2X1.5X4 Drill hole 1 diameter Bore 1 radius

Belt sender

Sand 0.5 radii

Machine
Horizontal band saw

Operation
Saw stock to ~4.125 Mill two ends to length 4 Mill width to 2

Manual vertical mill

Mill out 2X1.5X4

Drill hole 1 diameter Bore 1 radius

Belt sender

Sand 0.5 radii

Machine
Horizontal band saw

Operation
Saw stock to ~4.125 Mill two ends to length 4 Mill width to 2

Manual vertical mill

Mill out 2X1.5X4

Drill hole 1 diameter

Bore 1 radius
Sand 0.5 radii

Belt sender

Machine
Horizontal band saw

Operation
Saw stock to ~4.125 Mill two ends to length 4 Mill width to 2

Manual vertical mill

Mill out 2X1.5X4

Drill hole 1 diameter

Bore 1 radius
Belt sender Sand 0.5 radii
*

Machine
Horizontal band saw

Operation
Saw stock to ~4.125 Mill two ends to length 4 Mill width to 2

Manual vertical mill

Mill out 2X1.5X4 Drill hole 1 diameter Bore 1 radius

Belt sender

Sand 0.5 radii

*

Process plan
Machine
Horizontal band saw

Operation
Saw stock to ~4.125 Mill two ends to length 4 Mill width to 2

Manual vertical mill

Mill out 2X1.5X4 Drill hole 1 diameter Bore 1 radius

Belt sender

Sand 0.5 radii

Time estimation (minutes)

Machine
Horizontal band saw
Operation (V = Volume, A = Area, P = Perimeter) Fixture Tool Change Run (R=Rough, F=Finish) Deburr/Inspect/ Measure

Saw stock to ~4.125 A = 5.6525 in2, P = 9 in Mill two ends to length 4 V = 0.703 in3 A = 11.25 in2, P = 19in Mill width to 2 V = 2.5 in3 A = 10 in2, P = 13in Mill out 2X1.5X4 V = 12 in3 A = 14 in2, P = 15in Drill hole 1 diameter

0.23 0.20 0.20

2.02 0.13R 0.75F 0.46R 0.67F 2.19R 0.93F 0.03 0.05 0.04 0.01

0.30D, 0.05I 0.63D, 0.05I, 0.13M 0.43D, 0.05I, 0.13M 0.50D, 0.05I 0.13M, 0.13M

0.20

Manual vertical mill

2 2 2 2 2

-Center drill -Pilot drill -Pilot drill 63/64 -Ream

Bore 1 radius V = 0.79 in3 A = 1.57 in2, P = 7.28in Sand 0.5 radii V = 0.05 in3 A = 0.79 in2, P = 3.14in

0.20

0.21D, 0.05I 0.17M

0.20

0.96R 0.01F
0.20R 0.21F

0.24D, 0.05I 0.06M

0.10D, 0.05I 0.06M, 0.06M

Belt sender

0.08

Summary Times (minutes)

Fixture 1.31 Tool Change Run (R=Rough, F=Finish) Deburr/Inspect/Measure 12 6.08 2.58 3.63

Total Time 25.6 minutes