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Introduction to materials: density

The study of materials is important to inform decisions about which materials to use for different things. It is important to consider properties of materials such as density, and how materials react when forces are applied. density = mass volume

r=

m V

units: kg m3

The image shows equal volumes of brass, balsa wood and polystyrene. How would their densities and masses compare? What could they be used for?
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Finding the density

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Calculating the density

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Introduction to springs
The behaviour of springs is important since they have many uses, from car and bike suspension to clock-making.

It is important to know how springs will react when forces are applied.
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Tensile and compressive forces

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Restoring force

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Hookes law and the force constant

Hookes law states that the extension of a spring, x, is directly proportional to the force applied to it, F.

F x

or

F = kx

where k is a constant.

k is called the force constant or the spring constant, or sometimes the stiffness constant. The units of k are Nm-1. original length x

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Finding the force constant

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Calculating the force constant

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Elastic limit for springs

If a spring is stretched far enough, it reaches the limit of proportionality and then the elastic limit. The limit of proportionality is a point beyond which behaviour no longer conforms to Hookes law. The elastic limit is a point beyond which the spring will no longer return to its original shape when the force is removed. Elasticity is the ability to regain shape after deforming forces are removed.
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force

extension
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What is elastic potential energy?

A stretched or compressed material, like the spring in a jack-in-the-box when the lid is closed, has elastic potential energy (EPE) or elastic strain energy stored in it. EPE is the energy stored in a body due to a load causing a deformation. According to the principal of conservation of energy, no energy is created or destroyed when a spring is compressed. Therefore the work done in compressing the spring is equal to the EPE stored in it, plus any energy released as heat and sound.
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Calculating elastic potential energy

Work is done when a spring is stretched; for example, in stretching chest expanders. If the conversion of mechanical energy into thermal energy is ignored, work done is equal to EPE stored in the springs.

EPE = work done = average force distance moved = Fd

For a spring: EPE = work done = average force extension EPE = Fx
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Work done

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Match up the equations

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Stretching wires the variables

When using wires and other materials, it is important to know how they will stretch if a force acts on them. The following properties must be considered:

the length (L)

the cross-sectional area (a) the Young modulus (modulus of elasticity) of the material.
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What is the Young modulus?

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Young modulus calculation: example

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Stressstrain graphs

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Finding the Young modulus from graphs

Which material, A or B, has the larger Young modulus and how can you tell? tensile stress (Nm2)

A B

tensile strain
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Stiffness, strength and toughness

Stiffness, strength and toughness are all different properties of materials.

Stiffness reflects how difficult it is to change the shape or size of a material. Greater stiffness means a greater value for the force constant, k, and a steeper gradient of stressstrain curve (representing the Young modulus).
Strength refers to the ultimate tensile stress (UTS). A greater UTS means a stronger material. Toughness is a measure of the energy needed to break a material. Toughness is equal to the area under the stressstrain curve.
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More about properties of materials

A strong material may also be brittle, though at first this seems counterintuitive. high UTS A strong but brittle material breaking would have a linear stressstrain point curve, i.e. would break without any plastic deformation taking place. However, it would only break under high stress, so the end-point of the line would be at a high y-value on the graph. tensile strain It is also possible for a plastic material to be tough. How would such a material behave under tensile testing and what would its stressstrain curve look like?
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tensile stress (Nm2)

Investigating stressstrain graphs

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Different types of material

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Measuring the Young modulus

The Young modulus of a wire can be measured in the classroom without a tensile testing machine, using the set-up below. How could the equipment could be used to find the Young modulus? Remember the equation: stress FL Young modulus = = strain Ax length of wire under test

ruler
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marker on wire
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Young modulus calculations

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Glossary

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Whats the keyword?

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Multiple-choice quiz

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