PSY 4603 Research Methods

Sociometry, Network Analysis, & Path Analysis

 While some use the term "sociometry" to refer to all research using quantitative scales, it is used here in its narrower meaning, sometimes called sociography, which is a method of presenting data about complex individual relationships and networks in graph form. Sociometry was developed by Jacob L. Moreno in the 1930s and became closely associated with small group research and a focus on interpersonal choices. As a largely subjective but empirical, phenomenological approach to the study of group structure, sociometry can serve as a contrast or complement to the formal study of group structure through archival records.
In addition to its social scientific purposes, discussed a bit later, sociometric assessment of interpersonal choices also plays a role in personal or group growth by helping facilitate constructive change in individuals and groups through greater interpersonal awareness. For this reasons, in some circles the term sociometry refers to a form of therapy related to psychodrama.

 Key Concepts and Terms

Sociometric Tests
Sociometric Tests are simply surveys which are administered to subjects (typically all subjects in a small group) to determine the direction of certain relationships. This can sometimes be assessed through simple observation.
For example, a sociometric test might ask members of a department which other members they are most/least likely to consult on important questions; whom they hold in highest/lowest esteem; or with whom they most/least likely to see face-to-face during the previous week.

 Sociometric Representation
Sociometric representation refers to various graphical methods of data presentation. Some common sociometric representations are illustrated in the next figure

 In each representation, individuals are depicted as points. The star representation is made up of several lines pointing toward or away from a central point, which represents an individual who is involved in relationships with each of the other points, and where the arrows represent relationships such as reciprocation, ignoring, or rejection. Other common representations include the chain (a series of relationships); the pair (a mutually reciprocated relationship); the power (short for "power behind the throne," who is the object of attraction of a few very sociometrically attractive individuals; and the isolate (a subject not chosen by anyone).

 Inclusiveness is the percentage of non-isolated points in a sociometric diagram. A 25-point graph with five isolated points has an inclusiveness of 0.80 (20/25 = .80). Density is the number of lines as a percentage of total lines when all points are connected.
Total lines, based on probability, is nC2 = n!/(n - 2)!2!. For example, the number of lines connecting 6 points taken 2 at a time is 6!/[(6-2)!2!] = 720/(24*2) = 15. If a sociometric diagram had 10 lines, out of the possible total of 15, its density would be .67. This assumes a non-directed graph in which the lines are bi-directional or non-directional. For a directed graph in which all lines are one-directional, the total possible number of lines would be twice the calculation above (30) and thus the density would be half as much (.33).

 Sociometric Diagrams
Sociometric diagrams ("sociograms") map the relationships revealed by sociometric tests, as illustrated in the next figure (above).
While sociometric relationships for a five-person group such as depicted above could easily be described verbally, as the size of the group increases to dozens of subjects, sociometric diagrams are increasingly helpful in conveying the relationship structure. While sociometric studies are often static measurements at one point in time, there is nothing inherent in sociometry to prevent the recording of panel data over time. Moreover, sociometric representation can now be animated on the web to provide dynamic data diagrams.

 Sociometric Matrices
Sociometric matrices are an alternative form of data representation, used primarily when group size makes sociometric diagrams too complex. The matrix is an n-b-n square table representing subjects both across the top and down the side. For each possible pair, the range of the criterion is shown.
For example, for the criterion "With whom do you most like to work?", the ranges might be attraction = +1, indifference=0, dislike = -1. This sociometric information may be used to create an index of popularity by group by comparing the proportion of members chosen as desirable work partners in one group divided by group size, compared to a similar index in another group. An adjacency matrix is essentially similar, but cell entries are 1's and 0's, depending on whether the pair of subjects are adjacent by some criterion.

 Network Data Diagrams

Network data diagrams exist to provide a variety of graphic representations of networks alternative to classic sociograms:
Path diagrams, not necessarily based on actual path analysis, represent variables or groups as circles, relationships (which may be correlations, communications, formal associations, or other interactions) as arrows, and, often, magnitude of relationship by thickness of the arrow. Cluster diagrams represent variables or groups as points on one or more two-dimensional scatterplots or polar plots, with the proximity of points representing their similarity on the dimensions, and clusters of points may be highlighted by perimeter lines around each cluster (including the possibility of intersecting perimeters where a point may belong to two or more clusters). Factor plots similarly represent variables or groups as points on one or more two-dimensional scatterplots, where the dimensions are factors (see factor analysis); optionally, factor space may be divided into non-intersecting quadrants to highlight similarities among points. Centrality plots are polar plots in which the heavier the loading of the variable or group on the dimension, the closer it is located to the center of the plot. Optionally, concentric circles may highlight which points share a similar degree of centrality on the depicted dimension. Loadings may reflect factor loadings, path distances, or an index of the author's devising. Centrality index numbers, if assigned to points, are usually coded such that heavier loadings are represented as lower numbers. In centrality plots, direction of location with respect to the center (up/down, left/right) often has no meaning other than aesthetics of placement, but direction can be used to depict a second and third dimension. Spatial network diagrams. In the context of geographic information systems, software such as ArcView implement network analysis modules which generate map graphics depicting such things as shortest route between two objects, optimal route passing through a series of objects, or service areas (by best time or shortest distance) associated with multiple points.

 Assumptions Associated with Sociometry (Readers Digest version)

Measurement Inerrancy
Measurement inerrancy. Sociometric mapping assumes, of course, that individuals respond accurately to sociometric surveys or can be assessed accurately through observation. However, sociometry is open to several common problems. It tends not to record subconscious or illicit relationships. It may be biased toward recording attractions rather than dislikes because subjects more easily reveal the attractions than the dislikes.
Hey, no one wants to look like the mean guy.

It is best when subjective sociometric responses can be validated through external objective measures.

Small Group Size

Small group size. Sociometric diagramming becomes unwieldy and difficult for readers to interpret for very large groups. Also, sociometric techniques may be biased in larger groups since subjects tend to confine their choices to their own class range.

Path Analysis
Overview
Path analysis is an extension of the regression model, used to test the fit of the correlation matrix against two or more causal models which are being compared by the researcher. The model is usually depicted in a circle-and-arrow figure in which single arrows indicate causation. A regression is done for each variable in the model as a dependent on others which the model indicates are causes.
The regression weights predicted by the model are compared with the observed correlation matrix for the variables, and a goodness-of-fit statistic is calculated. The best-fitting of two or more models is selected by the researcher as the best model for advancement of theory. Path analysis requires the usual assumptions of regression. It is particularly sensitive to model specification because failure to include relevant causal variables or inclusion of extraneous variables often substantially affects the path coefficients, which are used to assess the relative importance of various direct and indirect causal paths to the dependent variable. Such interpretations should be undertaken in the context of comparing alternative models, after assessing their goodness of fit used with structural equation modeling (SEM packages are commonly used today for path analysis in lieu of stand-alone path analysis programs).

 Key Concepts and Terms

Path Model
A path model is a diagram relating independent, intermediary, and dependent variables.
Single arrows indicate causation between exogenous or intermediary variables and the dependent(s). Arrows also connect the error terms with their respective endogenous variables. Double arrows indicate correlation between pairs of exogenous variables. Sometimes the width of the arrows in the path model are drawn in a width which is proportional to the absolute magnitude of the corresponding path coefficients (well see this in a bit).

 Causal paths to a given variable include (1) the direct paths from arrows leading to it, and (2) correlated paths from endogenous variables correlated with others which have arrows leading to the given variable.
Consider this model:

This model has correlated exogenous variables A, B, and C, and endogenous variables D and E.
Error terms are not shown.

The causal paths relevant to variable D are

the paths from A to D, from B to D, and the paths reflecting common anteceding causes -- the paths from B to A to D, from C to A to D, and from C to B to D. Paths involving two correlations (C to B to A to D) are not relevant. Likewise, paths that go backward (E to B to D, or E to B to A to D) reflect common effects and are not relevant.

 Exogenous and Endogenous Variables

Exogenous variables in a path model are those with no explicit causes (no arrows going to them, other than the measurement error term).
If exogenous variables are correlated, this is indicated by a double-headed arrow connecting them. Endogenous variables, then, are those which do have incoming arrows. Endogenous variables include intervening causal variables and dependents. Intervening endogenous variables have both incoming and outgoing causal arrows in the path diagram. The dependent variable(s) have only incoming arrows.

 Path Coefficient/Path Weight

A path coefficient is a standardized regression coefficient (beta) showing the direct effect of an independent variable on a dependent variable in the path model. Thus when the model has two or more causal variables, path coefficients are partial regression coefficients which measure the extent of effect of one variable on another in the path model controlling for other prior variables, using standardized data or a correlation matrix as input.

This model is specified by the following path equations:

Equation 1. satisfaction = Constant + 11 (age) + 12 (autonomy) + 13(income) + error1 Equation 2. income = Constant + 21(age) + 22 (autonomy) + error2 Equation 3. autonomy = Constant + 31 (age) + error3
where the 's are the regression coefficients and their subscripts are the equation number and variable number (thus 21 is the coefficient in Equation 2 for variable 1, which is age.

 Formerly called p coefficients, now path coefficients are called simply beta weights, based on usage in multiple regression models.

So, Does path analysis confirm causation in a model?

No, although this is sometimes said.
Everitt and Dunn (1991) note, "However convincing, respectable and reasonable a path diagram... may appear, any causal inferences extracted are rarely more than a form of statistical fantasy". The authors are referring to the fact that ultimately path analysis deals with correlation, not causation of variables. The arrows in path models do indeed reflect hypotheses about causation. However, many models may be consistent with a given dataset. Path analysis merely illuminates which of two or more competing models, derived from theory, is most consistent with the pattern of correlations found in the data. The competing theories may be represented in separate path models with separate path analyses, or may be combined in a single path diagram, in which case the researcher is concerned with comparing the relative importance of different paths within the diagram.