©silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan 1. 1 Database System Concepts

Chapter 1: Introduction and Basic concepts ( [S] chp.
1)
Purpose of Database Systems View of Data Data Models Data Definition Language Data Manipulation Language
Transaction Management
Storage Management Database Administrator Database Users Overall System Structure
Database System Concepts
1.1
Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
A database represents some aspect of the real world, sometimes called the mini-world or the Universe of Discourse (UoD).
A database is a logically coherent collection of data with some inherit meaning.

A random assortment of data cannot correctly be referred to as a database. A database is designed, built, and populated with data for a specific purpose. It has an intended group of users and some preconceived applications in which these users are interested
1.2
What Is a DBMS?
A very large, integrated collection of data. Models real-world enterprise.

Entities (e.g., students, courses) Relationships (e.g., Madonna is taking CS564)
A Database Management System (DBMS) is a software package designed to store and manage databases.
1.3
Database Management System (DBMS)

Collection of interrelated data Set of programs to access the data DBMS contains information about a particular enterprise DBMS provides an environment that is both convenient and efficient to use. Database Applications:
Banking: all transactions Airlines: reservations, schedules Universities: registration, grades Sales: customers, products, purchases
Manufacturing: production, inventory, orders, supply chain Human resources: employee records, salaries, tax deductions
Databases touch all aspects of our lives
1.4
Purpose of Database System
In the early days, database applications were built on top of file systems Drawbacks of using file systems to store data:
Data redundancy and inconsistency Multiple file formats, duplication of information in different files
Difficulty in accessing data

Need to write a new program to carry out each new task Data isolation multiple files and formats Integrity problems
Integrity constraints (e.g. account balance > 0) become part of program code
Hard to add new constraints or change existing ones
1.5
Purpose of Database Systems (Cont.)
Drawbacks of using file systems (cont.)

Atomicity of updates Failures may leave database in an inconsistent state with partial updates carried out E.g. transfer of funds from one account to another should either complete or not happen at all
Concurrent access by multiple users

Concurrent accessed needed for performance Uncontrolled concurrent accesses can lead to inconsistencies E.g. two people reading a balance and updating it at the same time
Security problems
Database systems offer solutions to all the above problems
1.6
Why Use a DBMS?
Separation of the Data definition and the Program Abstraction into a simple model Data independence and efficient access.
Reduced application development time ad-hoc queries

Data integrity and security. Uniform data administration. Concurrent access, recovery from crashes. Support for multiple different views
1.7
Why Study Databases??
Shift from computation to information

at the low end: scramble to webspace (a mess!)
at the high end: scientific applications

Digital libraries, interactive video, Human Genome project, EOS project ... need for DBMS exploding OS, languages, theory, AI, multimedia, logic
Datasets increasing in diversity and volume.
DBMS encompasses most of CS
1.8
Levels of Abstraction
Many views, single conceptual (logical) schema and physical schema.
View 1
View 2
View 3
Views describe how users see the data. Conceptual schema defines logical structure. Sometime we separate between conceptual level and logical level Physical schema describes the files and indexes used.
Conceptual Schema
Physical Schema
* Schemas are defined using DDL (Data Definition Language) *data is modified/queried using DML (Data Manipulation Language)
Database System Concepts 1.9 Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Levels of Abstraction
Physical level describes how a record (e.g., customer) is stored. Logical level: describes data stored in database, and the relationships among the data. type customer = record name : string; street : string; city : integer; end; View level: application programs hide details of data types. Views can also hide information (e.g., salary) for security purposes.
1.10
Instances and Schemas
Similar to types and variables in programming languages Schema the logical structure of the database
e.g., the database consists of information about a set of customers and accounts and the relationship between them) Analogous to type information of a variable in a program Physical schema: database design at the physical level Logical schema: database design at the logical level
Instance the actual content of the database at a particular point in time

Analogous to the value of a variable
1.11
1.12
student name smith brown
student number 17 8
class 1 2
major cosc cosc
course courseName
data s tructure s
intro to com duts s cie nce
dis database
coursenumber Cradit hours depertment cosc 1310 4 cosc cosc 3320 4 cosc math2410 3 math cosc 3380 3 cosc
prerequisite
coursenumber cosc 3380 cosc 3330 cosc 3320
rerequisite number cosc 3320 math2410 cosc 1310
section sectionldentifier 85 92 102 112 119 135

grade_report student number 17 17 8 8 8 8 sectionldentifier 112 119 85 92 102 135
coursenumber math2410 cosc 1310 cosc 3320 math2410 cosc 1310 cosc 3380
grade B C A A B A
semester fall fall spring fall fall fall
year 86 86 87 87 87 87
instructor king anderson kuuth chang anderson stone
1.13
Physical (Storage) schema decisions
Mapping of entities to files (OS files) Data representation and encoding (compression) Access methods (Direct, Hashing, Indexed) Which indexes to maintain Clustering of records OS/DBMS issues (buffer management)
1.14
External (View) schema decisions
Which entities to present/filter Data representation and encoding (compression) Programming language dependent issues Changes to names, order of attributes Derived (computed) fields and joined tables
1.15
1.16
Data Independence
Physical Data Independence the ability to modify the physical schema without changing the application programs
Applications depend on the logical schema
DBA may change physical level (tuning) without affecting applications The DBMS automatically make the required adjustments, and application programs are not changed (queries may need to be recompiled and optimized)
Logical Data Independence the ability to modify the logical schema without changing the application programs
Applications depend on the logical schema via the Views Can be supported on a limited basis only (if view is not affected)
1.17
Data Models
A collection of modeling tools for describing

data data relationships data semantics data constraints
Entity-Relationship model Relational model Other models:

object-oriented model semi-structured data models (XML) Older models: network model and hierarchical model
1.18
Entity-Relationship Model
Example of schema in the entity-relationship model
1.19
Entity Relationship Model (Cont.)
E-R model of real world

Entities (objects) E.g. customers, accounts, bank branch Relationships between entities E.g. Account A-101 is held by customer Johnson Relationship set depositor associates customers with accounts
Widely used for database design

Database design in E-R model usually converted to design in the relational model (coming up next) which is used for storage and processing
1.20
Relational Model
Attributes
Example of tabular data in the relational model

Customerid 192-83-7465 019-28-3746 192-83-7465 customername Johnson Smith Johnson Jones Smith customerstreet Alma North Alma Main North customercity Palo Alto Rye accountnumber A-101 A-215 A-201 A-217 A-201
Palo Alto
Harrison Rye
321-12-3123
019-28-3746
1.21
A Sample Relational Database
1.22
Data Definition Language (DDL)
Specification notation for defining the database schema

E.g. create table account ( account-number balance
char(10), integer)
DDL compiler generates a set of tables stored in a data dictionary Data dictionary contains metadata (i.e., data about data)
database schema Data storage and definition language
language in which the storage structure and access methods used by the database system are specified
Usually an extension of the data definition language
1.23
Data Manipulation Language (DML)
Language for accessing and manipulating the data organized by the appropriate data model
A declarative DML is also known as query language
Two classes of languages

Procedural user specifies what data is required and how to get those data (DML)
Nonprocedural user specifies what data is required without specifying how to get those data (Query language)
SQL is the most widely used query language
1.24
SQL
SQL: widely used non-procedural language

E.g. find the name of the customer with customer-id 192-83-7465 select customer.customer-name from customer where customer.customer-id = 192-83-7465 E.g. find the balances of all accounts held by the customer with customer-id 192-83-7465 select account.balance from depositor, account where depositor.customer-id = 192-83-7465 and depositor.account-number = account.account-number
Application programs generally access databases through one of

Language extensions to allow embedded SQL Application program interface (e.g. ODBC/JDBC) which allow SQL queries to be sent to a database
1.25
Database Users
Users are differentiated by the way they expect to interact with the system
Application programmers interact with system through DML calls

Sophisticated users form requests in a database query language
Specialized users write specialized database applications that do not fit into the traditional data processing framework
Nave users invoke one of the permanent application programs that have been written previously
E.g. people accessing database over the web, bank tellers, clerical staff
1.26
Database Administrator
Coordinates all the activities of the database system; the database administrator has a good understanding of the enterprises information resources and needs. Database administrator's duties include:
Schema definition Storage structure and access method definition Schema and physical organization modification
Granting user authority to access the database Specifying integrity constraints Acting as liaison with users Monitoring performance and responding to changes in requirements
1.27
Structure of a DBMS
A typical DBMS has a layered architecture. The figure does not show the concurrency control and recovery components. This is one of several possible architectures; each system has its own variations. These layers must consider concurrency control and recovery
Query Optimization and Execution Relational Operators Files and Access Methods Buffer Management
Disk Space Management
DB
1.28
Transfer money from: account A to: account B
Begin Transaction
CRASH! SUBTRACT 100 FROM A
ADD
100 TO B
End Transaction
Abort, Commit, Rollback
1.29
READ # SEATS # SEATS = SEATS 1 WRITE # SEATS
READ # SEATS # SEATS = #SEATS 1
WRITE # SEATS
1.30
Overall System Structure
1.31
Storage Management
Storage manager is a program module that provides the interface between the low-level data stored in the database and the application programs and queries submitted to the system. The storage manager is responsible to the following tasks:
interaction with the file manager efficient storing, retrieving and updating of data
1.32
Concurrency Control
Concurrent execution of user programs good DBMS performance.
is essential for
Because disk accesses are frequent, and relatively slow, it is important to keep the cpu humming by working on several user programs concurrently.
Interleaving actions of different user programs can lead to inconsistency: e.g., check is cleared while account balance is being computed. DBMS ensures such problems dont arise: users can pretend they are using a single-user system.
1.33
Transaction Management
A transaction is a collection of operations that performs a single logical function in a database application
Transaction-management component ensures that the database remains in a consistent (correct) state despite system failures (e.g., power failures and operating system crashes) and transaction failures. Concurrency-control manager controls the interaction among the concurrent transactions, to ensure the consistency of the database.
1.34
Transaction: An Execution of a DB Program
Key concept is transaction, which is an atomic sequence of database actions (reads/writes). Each transaction, executed completely, must leave the DB in a consistent state if DB is consistent when the transaction begins.
Users can specify some simple integrity constraints on the data, and the DBMS will enforce these constraints. Beyond this, the DBMS does not really understand the semantics of the data. (e.g., it does not understand how the interest on a bank account is computed). Thus, ensuring that a transaction (run alone) preserves consistency is ultimately the users responsibility!
1.35
Scheduling Concurrent Transactions
DBMS ensures that execution of {T1, ... , Tn} is equivalent to some serial execution T1 ... Tn.
Before reading/writing an object, a transaction requests a lock on the object, and waits till the DBMS gives it the lock. All locks are released at the end of the transaction. (Strict 2PL locking protocol.)
Idea: If an action of Ti (say, writing X) affects Tj (which perhaps reads X), one of them, say Ti, will obtain the lock on X first and Tj is forced to wait until Ti completes; this effectively orders the transactions. What if Tj already has a lock on Y and Ti later requests a lock on Y? (Deadlock!) Ti or Tj is aborted and restarted!
1.36
The importance of the Data Dictionary
Contains all definitions: DDL (logical schema), Views definition, Physical schema definitions including Indexing and clustering information, Integrity constraints, security rules, stored procedures (SQL) Essential for query parsing and optimization Contains other important documentation and programs (regulations, standards, codes, etc.) There are companies who sell Data Dictionary tools as a separate product!
1.37
Logical Design and Data-Dictionary Tools Loading Physical Design and File reorganization Backup / Restore / Recovery Performance Monitoring and Tuning
1.38
Application Architectures
Two-tier architecture: E.g. client programs using ODBC/JDBC to communicate with a database Three-tier architecture: E.g. web-based applications, and applications built using middleware
1.39
Hierarchical Pre-historic IMS
Network Historic IDMS, ADABAS, lead to Object- Oriented

RELATIONAL- current 95% of the market Oracle, Informix, SQL/ Server, Progress, IBM DB2, etc. Object- ORIENTED Current lot of HuHa but very narrow market, mainly CAD AND Engineering Objectivity, Versant, Jasmine Object Relational- Current / Future SQL3, Informix UDO , Oracle-9, IBM DB2.
1.40
PRE-1960S 1945-magnetic tapes developed (the first medium to allow searching). 1957- First commercial computer installed. 1959- McGee proposed the notion of generalized access to electronically stored data. THE 60s 1961- The first generalized DBMS-GEs Integrated Data Store (IDS) designed by Bachman. THE 70s database technology experienced rapid growth. 1970- The relational model is developed by Ted Codd, an IBM research fellow. 1971- CODASYL Database Task Group Report. 1975- ACM Special Interest Group on Management of data organized first SIGMOD international conference. 1976- Entity- relationship (ER)model introduced by chen. THE 80s- DBMSs developed for personal computers (DBASE, PARADOX, etc). 1983- ANSI/SPARC survey revealed>100 relational systems had been implemented by the beginning of the 80s.
Database System Concepts 1.41 Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
1985- Preliminary SQL standard published. Business world influenced by Fourth Generation Languages. *Trends in the 80s: extendable database systems:object- oriented DBMSs, client server architecture for distributed database. The 90s
* Demand for extending DBMS capabilities to meet new applications.

* Emergence of commercial object- oriented DBMSs. * Demand for developed applications utilizing data from a variety of sources. * Demand for exploiting massively parallel processors (MPPs).
Total victory by the relational mod

SQL 3 Object relational systems. The 00s
The emergence of XML and the integration of XML and Relational databases
1.42
Databases make these folks happy ...
End users and DBMS vendors DB application programmers
E.g. smart webmasters

Designs logical /physical schemas Handles security and authorization
Database administrator (DBA)

Data availability, crash recovery

Database tuning as needs evolve
Must understand how a DBMS works!
1.43
Summary
DBMS used to maintain, query large datasets.

Benefits include recovery from system crashes, concurrent access, quick application development, data integrity and security. Levels of abstraction give data independence. A DBMS typically has a layered architecture. DBAs hold responsible jobs and are well-paid! DBMS R&D is one of the broadest, most exciting areas in CS. Advanced databases course at the graduate level
1.44

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Chapter 1: Introduction and Basic concepts ( [S] chp.

Database System Concepts