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Chapter 3 Form 5
Plant hormone
Peripheral nervous system (PNS) Auxins Ethylene
Endocrine system
Homeostasis
Osomotic pressure
Blood sugar level Body temperature
2 systems complement each other in coordination & response Components of nervous system:
Sensory receptors Integrating centre Effector
Integrating centre
Effectors
Integration happens when information from the stimulated receptor is interpreted to bring about appropriate to responses to the stimuli carry out the responses Muscle cells & glands to stimuli Light & sound stimuli give rise to sight & hearing
2 Detected by sensory receptor in the external sensory organs converted into nerve impulses
Integrating centre (CNS) brain & spinal cord nerve impulses interpreted & a response is initiated
Detected by sensory receptor in the internal organs converted into nerve impulses
5
Integrating centre (CNS) brain & spinal cord nerve impulses interpreted & a response is initiated
Effector
Cerebellum Located beneath the cerebrum & above the medulla oblongata Function coordinating centre for body movement Controls & coordinates muscles to produce coordinated movement
Medulla oblongata* Controls involuntary actions & regulates the internal body process that do not require conscious effort automatic functions, eg: heartbeat, breathing & vasoconstriction The reflex centre for vomiting, coughing, sneezing, hiccupping and swallowing
1 Afferent neurones
Efferent neurones 4
The neurones
Neurones system is made up of millions of nerve cells neurones Neurones transmit nerve impulses to other nerve cells, glands or muscles 3 types of neurones*
Afferent neurones Efferent neurones Interneurones
The neurones
Afferent (sensory) neurones Send nerve impulses from receptor cells to the brain and spinal cord
nucleus
Axon terminal
The neurones
Efferent (motor) neurones Send nerve impulses from the brain or spianl cord to the effectors, that is, the muscles or endocrine glands
nucleus Direction of nerve impulses
The neurones
Interneurones Transmit nerve impulses between the various parts of the brain and spinal cord Transmit nerve impulses between the afferent neurones & efferent neurones
Axon terminal
The neurones
There are 4 distinct parts of a typical neurones 1. Dendrites 2. Cell body 3. Axon 4. Synaptic terminals (synaptic knobs)
Synaptic terminal
The neurones
Dentrites Fibres, receive info/signal from other neurones or from the external env & conduct then towards the cell body Dendrites of afferent neurones produce signals in response to specific stimuli from the external env, eg: pressure, light, heat
Synaptic terminal
The neurones
Cell body Has a nucleus and other organelles Electrical signal /nerve impulses then travel along the dendrites & converge on the cell body of the neurone Integrates the signals & coordinates the metabolic activity
Synaptic terminal
The neurones
Axon Long, thin fibre Extends outwards from the cell body Conducts the nerve impulses away from the cell body Usually bundled together into nerves
Synaptic terminal
The neurones
Myelin sheath Some axons are insulated by myelin sheath protects & insulates the axons, helps to speed up the transmission of the nerve impulses As nerve impulses travel along axon, it jump from one node of Ranvier to the next. This speeds up the transmission of nerve impulses.
Synaptic terminal
The neurones
Synaptic terminals (synaptic knobs) Nerve impulses eventually reach the synaptic terminals located far end of each axon Swelling at the branched ends of the axon Transmit signals to the muscle cells, gland cells or the dendrites of another neurones
Synaptic terminal
The neurones
Transmission information along the neurone Through electrical signals known as nerve impulses Impulse a wave of electrical charges that travel along the axon or dendrites of a neurone Neurone will not transmit an impulse unless the stimulation is strong enough Once the magnitude or size of the stimulation reaches a sufficient level, a full-sized impulse is generated to travel the entire length of the axon.
Direction of nerve impulses
Synaptic terminal
Afferent neurones
Efferent neurones
5. Nerves impulses transmitted from interneurones efferent neurones muscles response & open the door
Transmission of information across synapses Electrical signals carrying a message must be transmitted across the synaptic cleft to an adjacent cell presynaptic
a) Synaptic cleft = space between the presynaptic & postsynaptic membrane b) Transmission of nerve impulses = chemical process c) Process requires the actions of neurotransmitters d) Neurotransmitters are stored in small synaptic vesicles clustered at the tip of a synaptic terminal
d a
postsynaptic
Transmission of information across synapses Eg of neurotransmitter: acetylcholine, noradrenaline, serotonin & dopamine Functions of synapse:
Controlling & integrating the nerve impulses transmitted by the stimulated receptors Facilitating the transmission of nerve impulses in ONE direction synaptic vesicles are only present in the synaptic terminals (only the presynaptic membrane can discharge neurotranmitters) receptors are only present in the postsynaptic membrane (only the postsynaptic membrane can receive a chemical signal)
Cerebrum responsible for all voluntary action Medulla oblongata controls involuntary actions
Eg: walking, talking Cerebral cortex of the cerebrum govern voluntary control of the skeletal muscles Information reaches the cerebral cortex results in a perception of the external env
Stimulus Receptor
Response
Effector
Immediate action do not require conscious effort Eg: finger touches a hot stove finger pull away immediately Responses to stimuli are involuntary = reflex action rapid, automatic or involuntary to stimuli Reflex arc pathway by which nerve impulses travel from the receptor to the effector in a reflex action
B
Nerve impulses transmitted from interneurone efferent neurone effector (muscle tissue) Finger pull away from the nail
C
In the spinal cord, nerve impulses transmitted from afferent neurone interneurone
Knee-jerk reflex / patellar reflex involves the simplest neural circuit only 2 kinds of neurones involved:
Afferent neurones Efferent neurones
2
Force stretches the quadriceps muscles & stimulates the stretch receptors in the muscles, triggering nerve impulses
4
Efferent neurones transmit this info to the quadriceps muscle muscle contracts jerking the lower leg forward
Permit vital functions (eg: heartbeats & blood circulation) to continue even during states of unconsciousness (sleeping, fainting)
These divisions work together, usually when ` activating and the other inhibiting the actions of the internal organs Both systems are connected to the same organs in the body and act in opposition to maintain homeostasis
Sympathetic division
Prepare the body for stressful situation or an emergency fight / flight responses - pulse rate, heartbeat rate, blood pressure, breathing rate Slow down the digestive system so that move blood is available to carry O2 to the vital organs (brain, heart, muscles)
Parasympathetic division
Prepare the body during ordinary situation relaxed state responses - pulse rate, blood pressure, breathing rate Stimulates the digestive system to continue breaking down food
Characteristic Muscles Integrating /glands centre involved Governs voluntary actions Skeletal muscles Skeletal muscles
Actions
Cerebral Reading, cortex of the walking cerebrum Spinal cord Removing hand from a hot stove, knee-jerk reflex
Medulla oblongata
Hypothalam us
Parkinsons disease
Shaking of hands at rest. Weakness and stiffness of muscles. Slowness of movement. Poor balance
Alzheimers disease
Dopamine-producing neurones in brain break up. Lack of dopamine ( a neurotransmiiter) in the brain which is important in movement control. Also known as getting Loss of neurones in the senile. areas of the brain for the Cannot remember and memory and other mental behave abnormally. abilities. The patients begins to have Low level of problems speaking, neurotransmitters. understanding, reading, and writing, later become anxious and aggressive and wanders away from home.
Parkinson Disease
Alzheimer Disease
3.3 Hormones
Endocrine system consists of glands that secrete hormones (chemical messengers) Endocrine glands ductless glands that secretes hormones directly into the interstitial fluid and subsequently into the bloodstream Circulating blood then delivers the hormones throughout the body Although hormones travel in the blood of the body, they affect & influence ONLY specific target cells Hormones bind to the specific receptor molecules on the surface of the plasma membrane of the target cells causes the cell to respond in a specific manner
Menstrual cycle, development of 2 sexual characteristics & growth only involve the endocrine system Hormones regulate: rate of heartbeat, metabolism, chemical composition and volume of the interstitial fluid, blood glucose concentration, etc
Thyroxine
Target: all tissue
Increase the metabolic rates of most body cells Increase body temperature Regulates growth & development
Adrenal medulla
Adrenaline & noradrenaline
Target: Cardiac & other muscles
Increase the blood glucose level & fatty acids in the blood Increase heartbeat rate & breathing rate Increase the metabolic rate & constrict some blood vessels
Increase the blood glucose level Stimulates the conversion of glycogen to glucose
Progesterone
Target: Gonads
Stimulate the developing of the uterine lining & formation of the placenta Inhibit ovulation
Stimulates the development of the female 2 sexual characteristics & maturation of the ova Promotes the repair of the uterine lining
Oxytocin
Stimulates the contraction of the uterine muscles during childbirth Stimulates the release of milk from the mammary glands in females Causes sperm ejection in males
Prolectin
Target: mammary gland
Stimulates ovulation, development of corpus luteum & secretion of oestrogen & progesterone in female Stimulates the secretion of testostresone in males
Other hormones
ADH & oxytoxin These hormones pass through the axon posterior pituitary cell blood stream
Hypothalamic releasing hormones stimulate the secretion of the anterior pituitary hormones Hypothalamic inhibiting hormones suppress the secretion of the anterior pituitary hormones
Fight or flight
During a threatening situation for example a fierce dog suddenly barks at you, the hypothalamus sends nerve impulses directly to adrenal medulla. The adrenal medulla , the innermost region of the adrenal gland, has neurones from sympathetic divisions of the autonomic system. The sequence of events take place in fight or flight situation
Increase of : heartbeat, breathing rate, blood pressure, blood glucose level, metabolic activities. The heart pump more oxygen and glucose to brain & skeletal muscle to : i) the brain needs to be highly alert to mobilize various part of the body ii) The skeletal muscle become more energized and enable a person fight off an attacker or flee immediately from danger.
Retardation of bone growth & cause dwarfism. ( where the person fail to grow and the size of body still like a child.
Hormones
Thyroxine
Excess of hormone
Deficiency of hormone
Cause myxedema in adulthood. Slows down heart rate, low body temperature, general lethargy, gain weight easily. Causes severe mental retardation (cretinism, ) during childhood. Lack of iodine reduces the secretion of thyroxine.
An increase in the metabolic rate of the body. Excessive sweating, nervousness, rapid heart rate and weight loss. Enlarge of the thyroid gland (goiter).
goitre
myxedema
Hormones
Insulin
Excess of hormone
Abnormally low level of glucose in the blood (hypoglycaemia). Fatigue, mental confusion. Severe hypoglycaemia can cause convulsions and unconsciousness.
Deficiency of hormone
Leads to diabetes mellitus. ( high level of sugar in blood). An increases frequency of urination, excessive thirst, numbness or burning sensation in the feet, ankles, legs. Blurred /poor vision, slow healing of wounds.
Hypoglycaemia
Hormones Excess of hormone Deficiency of hormone Antidiuretic Causes high Cause diabetes hormone (ADH) retention of water in insipidus ( a large the body ( oedema volume of urine is ). excreted). Patients usually feel thirsty.
Human kidney
Filter blood & form urine exit the body through ureters, urinary bladder & urethra Urine = water + urea + dissolved waste + excess nutrient
Contains 2 regions
Cortex outer light-red region Medulla inner dark-red region
Human kidney
The nephron Nephron function unit of kidney Each human kidney ~ 1 million nephron Consist 3 major part
Glomerulus
Bowmans capsule Renal tubule
Medulla
Cortex
Human kidney
The nephron
Human kidney
a) The nephron b) Blood supply to each nephron by an afferent arteriole, a branch of the renal artery c) Afferent arteriole divides further into a tangled capillary network glomerulus d) Glomerulus reunite to form an efferent arteriole e) Efferent arteriole divides to form a network of blood capillaries surrounding the renal tubules f) Network of blood capillary eventually join together into the renal vein
b a
Human kidney
The nephron Bowmans capsule Made up of 2 layers of cells surrounding glomerulus Capsular space space between 2 layers of cells
Podocytes cells make up inner wall Podocytes adhere closely to the endothelial cells of the glomerulus
Formation of urine
Taking part in nephron Processes:
A. Ultrafiltration B. Reabsorption C. Secretion
B Reabsoption
C Secretion A Ultrafiltration
From the collecting duct, urine bladder urethra excretion Normally, urine is clear, pale to deep yellow in colour, slightly acidic Urine contains excess water, mineral salts, urea, uric acids & creatinine
B Reabsoption
Formation of urine
A. ultrafiltration in the Bowmans capsule
Larger diameter
Podocytes
Hydrostatic pressure
Formation of urine
A. ultrafiltration in the Bowmans capsule Podocytes + endothelium of the glumerulus = filtration membrane permits the passage of water & solutes from blood into the capsular space Diameter: afferent arteriole>efferent arteriole = high hydrostatic pressure in nephron high hydrostatic pressure forces fluid through filtration membrane into capsular space, formed glomerular filtrate
Formation of urine
A. ultrafiltration in the Bowmans capsule Glomerular filtrate
Contain water, glucose, amino acids, urea, mineral salts & small molecules =blood plasma without [red blood cell & white blood cells]
Red blood cells and proteins too large, remain in the blood as flows into the efferent arteriole
Formation of urine
B. Reabsorption Useful substances reabsobed from renal tubule into the capillary network 1. Reabsorption proximal convoluted tubule
Na+ actively pump into capillary network Cl- follow passively Glucose & amino acids active transport (cells of proximal convoluted tubule consist of many mitochondria to generate ATP) Water osmosis
Formation of urine
B. Reabsorption 3. Reabsorption distal convoluted tubule
The watery filtrate which is now low in salt but high in wastes, eg: urea More water, Na+ & Cl- are reabsorbed
Formation of urine
C. Secretion Waste & excess substances secreted from the blood renal tubule Take place in
distal convoluted tubule ACTIVELY Collecting ducts
Occurs by
Passive diffusion Active transport
Secreted substances: H+, K+, urea, creatinine, toxic substances & drugs
Formation of urine
C. Secretion Helps to
Eliminate & increase the rate of waste removal from the body Regulate the levels of certain ions in the blood, eg: blood pH dips too low, kidney will secrete more H+. When the level of [K+] in blood rises, kidney will secrete more K+
By adjusting the amount of ions to reabsorb or to secrete, kidney can regulate the chemical composition of the blood
Negative feedback whenever a change occurs in a system, the change automatically initiates a corrective mechanism which reverses the original change & brings the system back to normal
Normal value
Normal value
Negative feedback
Corrective mechanism
Water content falls below normal range [solute] blood osmotic pressure
3. Lower level of ADH causes the distal convoluted tubule & collecting duct to be less permeable to water
4. Less water is reabsorbed from the filtrate into the blood urine contains more water more dilute lighter in colour
3. Higher level of ADH increase the permeability of distal convoluted tubule & collecting duct
4. More water is reabsorbed from the filtrate into the blood urine contains less water more concentrate darker
Actions of these hormones & negative feedback mechanism maintain normal glucose level
stimulates
Muscle cells Use glucose for respiration Convert excess glucose to glycogen & store & build protein
After eating
Adipose tissue Use glucose for respiration Use glucose to form fat
stimulates
Glucagon
Thermoregulatory centre in the hypothalamus Various effectors to either raise or reduce the body temperature to the normal level Detect external temperature
Stimulants
Increase the activity of the central nervous system Eg: cocaine blocks the removal of pleasureinducing neurotransmitters Excessive use, cause a temporary ecstacy that is soon followed by depression once the level of the neurotransmitters falls to its normal level
Depressants
Often slow down the activity of the central nervous system Depressants (eg: transquilisers) slow down the transmission of nerve impulses Alcohol inhibits the release of ADH passes large volumes of urine leads to dehydration
Hallucinogens LSD (D-lysergic acid diethylamide) causes a user to see, hear & preceive things that do not exist (hallucinate)
Narcotics Heroin & morphine mimick neurotransmitters by binding to their receptor sites Induce feeling of ecstacy, block pain signals & slow down normal brain function
(b) (a)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
Observation
b) No bending of the coleoptile tip and the coleoptile tip grows upward c) Coleoptile bends towards the light
The coleoptiles tip i) Detects light ii) Produces auxin - Auxin is distributed down the coleoptile and cause the upward elongation. - Auxin is distributed to the shaded region and cause the uneven elongation of coleoptile tip. So, the shoot bends.
Observation
-Light is detected by the coleoptile. - The auxin is distributed towards shaded region and cause uneven bending. - Auxin diffuses through the agar into shaded region below which causes the shoot to bend. Mica prevents auxin from diffusing to the region below the tip of the shaded side.
Explanation - Auxin from agar blocks diffuses down along one side of each coleoptiles stump causing it to bend.
Auxin from each tip passes down along one side of each coleoptiles stump causing a greater elongation on the side which results in bending.
Higher concentration of auxins there causes cells on the lower part to elongate rapidly shoot bends upwards & root ben downwards
Once the root tip point directly downwards, the auxin distribution becomes equal on all sides root grow straight downwards
1. [auxin] needed to achieve max growth response in shoot inhibits root growth 2. [auxin] that stimulates root growth is too low to stimulate shoot growth
% stimulation Shoots
Root
R
Afferent neurone Interneurone Q Efferent neurone R
Muscle
Glycogen
Hormone Y
Glucose
D Glucagon
Insulin
Hormone Y