AS Media Studies

AUDIENCE THEORY

MOST AUDIENCE THEORY FOCUSES ON TWO QUESTIONS..

How powerful are the media in

influencing the ideas and behaviour of the audience? And How does the media shape an audiences perception of the world? Audience theories suggest that representations are open to different interpretations and that their meanings are not fixed.

By the end of the lesson

Name at least two theories which are associated

with the Effects Debate

Explain at least one theory using examples. Analyse how far you think that violence on television

causes violent behaviour?

 Last night did you turn on the TV to watch

something or leave it on in the background?

If you were Choosing to watch something what

was it?
Did it have an effect on you?

Me2 Exam Question 2006: A: Name two theories which are associated with the Effects Debate. B: Explain these two theories using examples. C: How far do you think that violence on television causes violent behaviour?

CONSUMPTION OF MEDIA There are different ways of consuming media texts

Primary media

(texts demand close and concentrated attention from audience, eg. Films in cinemas)
Secondary media

(texts provide a background for an audience who are often doing something else at the same time and are distracted, eg. Radio and some TV programmes)

Audience Theory
There are three theories of audience that we

can apply to help us come to a better understanding about the relationship between texts and audience. 1.The Effects Model or the Hypodermic Model 2.The Uses and Gratifications Model 3.Reception Theory

The Effects Model

The Effects Model

The consumption of media texts has an

effect or influence upon the audience It is normally considered that this effect is negative Audiences are passive and powerless to prevent the influence The power lies with the message of the text

The Effects Model

This model is also called:

The Hypodermic Model

Here, the messages in media texts are injected

into the audience by the powerful, syringe-like, media The audience is powerless to resist Therefore, the media works like a drug and the audience is drugged, addicted, doped or duped.

The Effects Model

Key evidence for the Effects Model 1.

The Frankfurt School theorised in the 1920s and 30s that the mass media acted to restrict and control audiences to the benefit of corporate capitalism and governments

2. The Bobo Doll experiment This is a very controversial piece of research that apparently proved that children copy violent behaviour

The Effects Model

The Bobo Doll Experiment

This was conducted in 1961 by Albert Bandura

BOBODOLL EXPERIMENT

The Effects Model

In the experiment: Children watched a video where an adult violently

attacked a clown toy called a Bobo Doll The children were then taken to a room with attractive toys that they were not permitted to touch The children were then led to another room with Bobo Dolls 88% of the children imitated the violent behaviour that they had earlier viewed. 8 months later 40% of the children reproduced the same violent behaviour

So.. What was the conclusion?

The Effects Model

The conclusion reached was that

children will imitate violent media content There are many problems with the experiment. What do you think are the flaws with the methodology? Does it indeed prove that children imitate violent media content?

Feshbach and Singer (1971)

One problem with typical research on TV and

violence is that it tends to be artificial, conducted in laboratory settings. To address this concern, Feshbach and Singer tried to find out whether TV violence could cause real violence in a natural setting. In this famous experiment a sample of boys aged from 8 to 18 were observed over six weeks. They were drawn from three private schools and two boys' homes. During the period of the experiment their TV viewing was prescribed for them.

 The boys were assigned at random to groups,

some of whom saw only 'aggressive' programmes, others only 'non-aggressive' programmes.

 What do you think the conclusion from

the evidence was?

Discuss in groups.

SHOCKINGLY.
The conclusion from the research was that those

who watched aggressive TV seemed to come out of the experiment with reduced aggression. This finding suggested that violent media output might have a cathartic effect.

Gauntlett study (1995)

Some of the youngsters exposed to the diet of

non-violent fare apparently became more aggressive towards their peers, this may have had little to do with any supposed cathartic effect of screen violence, but more to do with their annoyance and frustration at being denied their usual TV programmes. In fact, the Batman fans were so annoyed that the researchers had to give in and let them watch it.

10 things wrong with the Media effects Model

Since I have argued this case, broadly speaking,

elsewhere (Gauntlett, 1995a), I will here explore the second possibility: that the media effects research has quite consistently taken the wrong approach to the mass media, its audiences, and society in general. This misdirection has taken a number of forms;

 Exercise.
What do you think are the flaws with the methodology?

Does it indeed prove that children imitate violent media content?

Read through informationSum up (one sentence)

what it says in opposition to the Effects Model .

 1. The effects model tackles social problems 'backwards'

2. The effects model treats children as inadequate

3. Assumptions within the effects model are characterised by

barely-concealed conservative ideology 4. The effects model inadequately defines its own objects of study 5. The effects model is often based on artificial studies 6. The effects model is often based on studies with misapplied methodology 7. The effects model is selective in its criticisms of media depictions of violence 8. The effects model assumes superiority to the masses 9. The effects model makes no attempt to understand meanings of the media 10. The effects model is not grounded in theory

The Effects Model

The Effects Model (backed up by the

Bobo Doll experiment) is still the dominant theory used by politicians, some parts of the media and some religious organisations in attributing violence to the consumption of media texts.

The Effects Model

Key examples sited as causing or being

contributory factors are: The film Childs Play 3 in the murder of James Bulger in 1993 The game Manhunt in the murder of Stefan Pakeerah in 2004 by his friend Warren LeBlanc The film A Clockwork Orange (1971) in a number of rapes and violent attacks

The Effects Model

In each case there was a media and political outcry

for the texts to be banned In some cases laws were changed, films banned, and newspapers demanded the burning of films
Subsequently, in each case it was found that no

case could be proven to demonstrate a link between the text and the violent acts

The Effects Model

The Effects Model contributes to Moral

Panics whereby: The media represent inactivity, make us into students who wont pass their exams or couch potatoes who make no effort to get a job The media produces violent copycat behaviour or mindless shopping in response to advertisements

By the end of the lesson

Name at least two theories which are associated

with the Effects Debate

Explain at least one theory using examples. Analyse how far you think that violence on television

causes violent behaviour? Is there a link? Is the theory absolute?

The Uses and Gratifications Model

It is still unclear that there is any link between

the consumption of violent media texts and violent imitative behaviour It is also clear the theory is flawed in that many people do watch violent texts and appear not to be influenced Therefore a new theory is necessary This is called the:

Uses and Gratifications

Model

 Earlier

Last night, did you turn the TV on to watch

something or leave it on in the background? If you were choosing to watch something what was it? What needs did it fulfil in watching it? Were there alternative channels?

The Uses and Gratifications Model

The Uses and Gratifications Model is

the opposite of the Effects Model The audience is active The audience uses the text & is NOT used by it The audience uses the text for its own gratification or pleasure

The Uses and Gratifications Model

Here, power lies with the audience NOT the

producers
This theory emphasises what audiences do with

media texts how and why they use them

Far from being duped by the media , the audience

is free to reject, use or play with media meanings as they see fit

 In groups brainstorm what possible Audiences

therefore use media texts to gratify needs for

Eg. Pleasure List.

The Uses and Gratifications Model

In this theory we see that there are four basic audience

needs: 1. Diversion (escapism) the audience use the media for escapism or emotional release from everyday pressure 2. Personal Relationships the idea that the audience needs companionship with known TV programmes or characters as well as the interaction with other people who can discuss the TV programmes. Did you see East Enders? I really felt for poor Peggy/Sharon, Little Mo 3. Personal Identity the ability to compare ones own life with characters lives and situations, thereby gaining a perspective on ones own life. 4. Surveillance being given the opportunity to see what else is going on in the world

The Uses and Gratifications Model

The audience is in control and consumption of the

media helps people with issues such as: Learning Emotional satisfaction Relaxation Help with issues of personal identity Help with issues of social identity Help with issues of aggression and violence

The Uses and Gratifications Model

Controversially the theory suggests the

consumption of violent images can be helpful rather than harmful The theory suggests that audiences act out their violent impulses through the consumption of media violence The audiences inclination towards violence is therefore sublimated, and they are less likely to commit violent acts

ESCAPISM
ESCAPE everyday worries and pressures Media

texts work this in different ways

The CONTENT ignores reality

The CONTENT offers contrast to reality

The CONTENT makes reality Better than Life

(Incoporation)
How does the content of media texts do this? Give

Examples for each one.

Me2 Exam Question 2006: A: Name two theories which are associated with the Effects Debate. B: Explain these two theories using examples. C: How far do you think that violence on television causes violent behaviour?

2nd lesson

What affects your reading of a text?

What affects your reading of a text?

Age

Race
Religion Location

Income
Any others?

Reception Theory
Given that the Effects model and the Uses and

Gratifications have their problems and limitations a different approach to audiences was developed by the academic Stuart Hall at Birmingham University in the 1970s
This considered how texts were encoded with

meaning by producers and then decoded (understood) by audiences

Reception Theory
The theory suggests that: When a producer constructs a text it is encoded

with a meaning or message that the producer wishes to convey to the audience In some instances audiences will correctly decode the message or meaning and understand what the producer was trying to say In some instances the audience will either reject or fail to correctly understand the message

 Stuart Hall identified three

types of audience readings (or decoding) of the text:

Dominant or preferred 2. Negotiated 3. Oppositional

1.

Born February 3, 1932 in Kingston, Jamaica. Works as a cultural theorist and sociologist in the United Kingdom. He has contributed to key works on culture, he is "one of the country's leading cultural theorists".

Reception Theory

1. Dominant
Where the audience decodes the

message as the producer wants them to do and broadly agrees with it E.g. Watching a political speech and agreeing with it

Reception Theory

2. Negotiated
Where the audience accepts, rejects or

refines elements of the text in light of previously held views E.g. Neither agreeing or disagreeing with the political speech or being disinterested

Reception Theory

3. Oppositional
Where the dominant meaning is

recognised but rejected for cultural, political or ideological reasons E.g. Total rejection of the political speech and active opposition

What do you think is the preferred reading of Xena?

The initial intention of the producers

She is a warrior woman who fights her own battles with a female friend; she doesnt need the influence of men.

Xena, Warrior Princess

The preferred reading of the text would suggest that the

two main characters of the show, Xena and Gabrielle, share a very close friendship, and bond quickly beginning from the first episode. However a second, oppositional reading would suggest that the two are engaged in a lesbian relationship and are close because they are lovers. With very little lesbian following in its infancy, the preferred reading of XWP in the first season (1995-1996) is the friendship of the two women. In later seasons however, the lesbian subtext becomes more apparent as the lesbian following grew, and effectively moved from an oppositional reading to that of a "minor preferred".

Benetton adverts
What do you think is the preferred reading of these

adverts? What might be considered an oppositional reading?

 Preferred reading: Benetton believed that if the

public saw these inmates as people, then they would be less inclined to see them executed. Oppositional reading: The families of the victims and prisoners objected strongly to the campaign and accused Benetton of glamorizing murderers while ignoring the crimes they had committed.

Summary
Dominant reading: This is how the

director/creator wants the audience to view the media text. Oppositional reading: This is when the audience reject the preferred reading and create their own meaning of the text. Negotiated Reading: This is a compromise between 1 & 2 where the audience accept parts of the directors views but has their own views on certain parts.

Reception Theory
Audience Decodes Meaning/Message

Dominant or preferred
Producer Encodes Meaning

Negotiated

Oppositional

 The state of Missouri (US) where the inmates in question

were imprisoned filed a suit against Benetton, arguing that it had been misled regarding the use of the photos. This lawsuit was settled in June 2001 when Benetton agreed to write letters of apology to the four Missouri families whose relatives were murdered by the inmates featured in the ads and to donate $50,000 to the Missouri Crime Victims Compensation Fund. In the US, retailer Sears cancelled an exclusive $100 million contract to sell a line of Benetton clothes, calling the death row images terribly insensitive.

 What do you think?

Do audiences respond in different ways?

Sample exam question (June 2004):

a) b) c)

Identify two factors which can influence the ways in which audiences read media texts. (4) Using an example, show what you understand by the term preferred reading. (8) How far do you agree that audiences respond to texts in different ways? Give examples to support your argument. (13)

 If every media text is open to

interpretation, what happens to the idea of absolute truth? Can truth be constructed by the audience?