SUMMER INDUSTRIAL TRAINING REPORT

Vivekanand Institute of Technology and Science

SUBMITTED BY
PANKAJ YADAV ROLL.NO 1022331068
BRANCH: ELECTRONICS AND ECOMMUNICATION

Contents
1. B.S.N.L. An Introduction

DIGITAL SWITCHING

MODULATION: MULTIPLEXING: POWER PLANT Microprocessor I.S.D.N (Integrated service digital network)Electronic Exchange

GSM
CDMA Fiber-optic communication Wi-Fi

B.S.N.L. An Introduction
Bharat Sanchar Nigam Limited (known as BSNL, India Communications Corporation Limited) is a state-owned telecommunication company in India. BSNL is the sixth largest cellular service provider, with over 57.22 million customers as of December 2009 and the largest land line telephone provider in India. Its headquarters are at Bharat Sanchar Bhawan, Harish Chandra Mathur Lane, Janpath, New Delhi. It has the status of Mini Ratna, a status assigned to reputed public sector companies in India. BSNL is India's oldest and largest Communication Service Provider (CSP). Currently has a customer base of 90 million as of June 2008. It has footprints throughout India except for the metropolitan cities of Mumbai and New Delhi which are managed by MTNL. As on March 31, 2008 BSNL commanded a customer base of 31.55 million Wireline, 4.58 million CDMA-WLL and 54.21 million GSM services.

1.1 B.S.N.L. An Introduction

Bharat Sanchar Nigam Limited (known as BSNL, India Communications Corporation

Limited) is a state-owned telecommunication

BSNL is the sixth largest cellular service provider, with over 57.22 million customers as of December 2009 and the largest land line telephone provider in India. Its headquarters are at Bharat Sanchar Bhawan, Harish Chandra Mathur Lane, Janpath, New Delhi. It has the status of Mini Ratna, a status assigned to reputed public sector companies in BSNL is India's oldest and largest Communication Service Provider (CSP). Currently has a customer base of 90 million as of June 2008. It has footprints throughout India except for

the metropolitan cities of Mumbai and New Delhi which are managed by MTNL.
As on March 31, 2008 BSNL commanded a customer base of 31.55 million Wireline, 4.58 million CDMA-WLL and 54.21 million GSM services.

DIGITAL SWITCHING:
Digital switching has become a synonym for time division multiplex. In digital switching system, digital signals are switched in two nodes, time switching and space switching. Time switching basically involves rearrangement of channel sequence in the same PCM from whereas space switching involves interconnection of same channels of a different PCM high way. In a practical digital switching both time and space switching stage is employed to increase the traffic handling capacity of the switch at minimum cost. Among the various possible combinations TST structure is most commonly used. Synchronization of various exchange clocks in a digital network is essential to provide required services. Causing a slip due to mismatch between the clocks will result in multination of information and description of services. Hence, slip has to be controlled using plesiochronous 6 and synchronous approaches. D

MODULATION: Often the message signal is not suitable for transmission over the medium in its original forms. Therefore, the message signal is located in a carrier wave, which is more suited for transmission over the medium. This process is called modulation of the carrier wave. At the receiving end station the message signal received back from the incoming modulated carrier wave by a process is called demodulation which is inverse of modulation.
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MULTIPLEXING: Modulation enables multiple message signals to be simultaneously transmitted over the same medium without interfering each other. Transmission of multiple message signals simultaneously over a medium is called multiplexing. Modulation is essentially a process of relocation of a message signal in a carrier wave, which is more suitable for transmission for transmission over the medium than the message signal itself. Three types of modulation can occur1. Amplitude modulation 2. Frequency modulation 3. Pulse modulation
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POWER PLANT One of the primary requirements of any computer system is that service will be available to the subscriber at any time. In the vast majority of exchanges the electrical energy required for signaling, switching, speed transmission mains. The exchange power system is designed to provide continuous and uninterrupted telephone service even when the public electric fails. We can divide power plant in three major blocks such as FLOAT RECTIFIER BATTERY CHARGER 9 SWITCHING CUBICAL

Microprocessor A microprocessor is a complex electronic processor on a single silicon chip (Large-scale integrated circuit). It is capable of performing arithmetic and logical functions under the control of program. Functional units of microprocessor1. Arithmetic and logic unit 2. Registers (Temporary memory) 3. Timing and control unit Functions 1. FETCH 2. DECODE

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I.S.D.N (Integrated service digital network)-

Presently, there is a multiplicity of services such as telephoning, telex, data cable television etc. that are provided by separate dedicated network for each of them. These non-integrated services require separate switching system. Special subscribers access plants, individual trunk networks and separate operations and maintenance staff. These services are costly to the subscriber as well as to department. In I.S.D.N, these services are provided by one integrated network, which can be accessed by different customer premises equipment. In I.S.D.N, subscriber loop from the local exchange will be terminated at the network terminal (N.T). From N.T the signal will be distributed to the information sockets. These information sockets will be distributed in the premises just like power sockets are distributed for providing on the information sockets, different terminals for voice and nonvoice services can be connected.
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Electronic Exchange These are entirely computerized and electronic devices, which work on store programme control. Electronic logic component can do ten thousand times operation during signal in the comparison of electromechanical exchange. In an electronic exchange a single control device simultaneously process a number of calls on time-sharing basis. Such centralization is more economical, but it is disadvantageous in making switching system more vulnerable to system failure. This, however, can be overcome a standby control devices. These electronic exchanges have powerful processing unit. Part of control equipment capacity utilize for function 12 other than for processing.

GSM
GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications, originally Groupe Spcial Mobile), is a standard set developed by the European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI) to describe protocols for second generation (2G) digital cellular networks used by mobile phones. It became the de facto global standard for mobile communications with over 80% market share. The GSM standard was developed as a replacement for first generation (1G) analog cellular networks, and originally described a digital, circuit-switched network optimized for full duplex voice telephony. This was expanded over time to include data communications, first by circuit-switched transport, then packet data transport via GPRS (General Packet Radio Services) and EDGE (Enhanced Data rates for GSM Evolution or EGPRS). Further improvements were made when the 3GPP developed third generation (3G) UMTS 13 standards followed by fourth generation (4G) LTE Advanced standards.

History
In 1981, work began to develop a European standard for digital cellular voice telephony when the European Conference of Postal and Telecommunications Administrations (CEPT) created the Groupe Spcial Mobile committee and later provided a permanent technical support group based in Paris. Five years later, in 1987, 15 representatives from 13 European countries signed a memorandum of understanding in Copenhagen to develop and deploy a common cellular telephone system across Europe, and EU rules were passed to make GSM a mandatory standard.The decision to develop a continental standard eventually resulted in a unified, open, standard-based network which was larger than that in the United States In 1989, the Groupe Spcial Mobile committee was transferred from CEPT to the European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI). In 1987 Europe produced the very first agreed GSM Technical Specification in February). Ministers from the four big EU countries cemented their political support for GSM with the Bonn Declaration on Global Information Networks in May and the GSM MoU was tabled for signature in September. The MoU drew-in mobile operators from across Europe to pledge to invest in new GSM networks to an ambitious common date. It got 14 GSM up and running fast.

Base Station subsystem

GSM is a cellular network, which means that cell phones connect to it by searching for cells in the immediate vicinity. There are five different cell sizes in a GSM network macro, micro, pico, femto, and umbrella cells. The coverage area of each cell varies according to the implementation environment. Macro cells can be regarded as cells where the base station antenna is installed on a mast or a building above average rooftop level. Micro cells are cells whose antenna height is under average rooftop level; they are typically used in urban areas. Picocells are small cells whose coverage diameter is a few dozen metres; they are mainly used indoors. Femtocells are cells designed for use in residential or small business environments and connect to the service providers network via a broadband internet connection. Umbrella cells are used to cover shadowed regions of smaller cells

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GSM carrier frequencies

GSM networks operate in a number of different carrier frequency ranges (separated into GSM frequency ranges for 2G and UMTS frequency bands for 3G), with most 2G GSM networks operating in the 900 MHz or 1800 MHz bands. Where these bands were already allocated, the 850 MHz and 1900 MHz bands were used instead (for example in Canada and the United States). In rare cases the 400 and 450 MHz frequency bands are assigned in some countries because they were previously used for first-generation systems. Most 3G networks in Europe operate in the 2100 MHz frequency band. For more information on worldwide GSM frequency usage, see GSM frequency bands. Regardless of the frequency selected by an operator, it is divided into timeslots for individual phones. This allows eight full-rate or sixteen half-rate speech channels per radio frequency. These eight radio timeslots (or burst periods) are grouped into a TDMA frame. Half-rate channels use alternate frames in the same timeslot. The channel data rate for all 8 channels is 270.833 kbit/s, and the frame duration is 4.615 ms. The transmission power in the handset is limited to a maximum of 2 watts in GSM 850/900 and 1 watt in GSM 16 1800/1900.

GSM service security GSM was designed with a moderate level of service security. The system was designed to authenticate the subscriber using a pre-shared key and challengeresponse. Communications between the subscriber and the base station can be encrypted. The development of UMTS introduces an optional Universal Subscriber Identity Module (USIM), that uses a longer authentication key to give greater security, as well as mutually authenticating the network and the user, whereas GSM only authenticates the user to the network (and not vice versa). The security model therefore offers confidentiality and authentication, but limited authorization capabilities, and no 17 non-repudiation.

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Network structure
The network is structured into a number of discrete sections: Base Station Subsystem the base stations and their controllers Network and Switching Subsystem the part of the network most similar to a fixed network, sometimes just called the "core network" GPRS Core Network the optional part which allows packetbased Internet connections Operations support system (OSS) network maintenance
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Code division multiple access

Code division multiple access (CDMA) is a channel access method used by various radio communication technologies. CDMA is an example of multiple access, which is where several transmitters can send information simultaneously over a single communication channel. This allows several users to share a band of frequencies (see bandwidth). To permit this to be achieved without undue interference between the users CDMA employs spread-spectrum technology and a special coding scheme (where each transmitter is assigned a code). CDMA is used as the access method in many mobile phone standards such as cdmaOne, CDMA2000 (the 3G evolution of cdmaOne), and WCDMA (the 3G standard used by GSM carriers), which are often referred to as simply CDMA. 20

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History
The technology of code division multiple access channels has long been known. In the USSR, the first work devoted to this subject was published in 1935 by professor Dmitriy V. Ageev.[1] It was shown that through the use of linear methods, there are three types of signal separation: frequency, time and compensatory. The technology of CDMA was used in 1957, when the young military radio engineer Leonid Kupriyanovich in Moscow, made an experimental model of a wearable automatic mobile phone, called LK-1 by him, with a base station. LK-1 has a weight of 3 kg, 2030 km operating distance, and 2030 hours of battery life.[2][3] The base station, as described by the author, could serve several customers. In 1958, Kupriyanovich made the new experimental "pocket" model of mobile phone. This phone weighed 0.5 kg. To serve more customers, Kupriyanovich proposed the device, named by him as correllator.[4][5] In 1958, the USSR also started the development of the "Altai" national civil mobile phone service for cars, based on the Soviet MRT-1327 standard. The phone system weighed 11 kg and was approximately 3 cubic meters in size[dubious discuss]. It was placed in the trunk of the vehicles of high-ranking officials and used a standard handset in the passenger compartment. The main developers of the Altai system were VNIIS (Voronezh Science Research Institute of Communications) and 22 GSPI (State Specialized Project Institute

Steps in CDMA Modulation

CDMA is a spread spectrum multiple access[6] technique. A spread spectrum technique spreads the bandwidth of the data uniformly for the same transmitted power. A spreading code is a pseudorandom code that has a narrow ambiguity function, unlike other narrow pulse codes. In CDMA a locally generated code runs at a much higher rate than the data to be transmitted. Data for transmission is combined via bitwise XOR (exclusive OR) with the faster code. The figure shows how a spread spectrum signal is generated. The data signal with pulse duration of (symbol period) is XORed with the code signal with pulse duration of (chip period). (Note: bandwidth is proportional to where = bit time) Therefore, the bandwidth of the data signal is and the bandwidth of the spread spectrum signal is . Since is much smaller than , the bandwidth of the spread spectrum signal is much larger than the bandwidth of the original signal. 23 The ratio is called the spreading factor

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Code division multiplexing (Synchronous CDMA) Synchronous CDMA exploits mathematical properties of orthogonality between vectors representing the data strings. For example, binary string 1011 is represented by the vector (1, 0, 1, 1). Vectors can be multiplied by taking their dot product, by summing the products of their respective components (for example, if u = (a, b) and v = (c, d), then their dot product uv = ac + bd). If the dot product is zero, the two vectors are said to be orthogonal to each other. Some properties of the dot product aid understanding of how W-CDMA works:

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Asynchronous CDMA
When mobile-to-base links cannot be precisely coordinated, particularly due to the mobility of the handsets, a different approach is required. Since it is not mathematically possible to create signature sequences that are both orthogonal for arbitrarily random starting points and which make full use of the code space, unique "pseudo-random" or "pseudo-noise" (PN) sequences are used in asynchronous CDMA systems. A PN code is a binary sequence that appears random but can be reproduced in a deterministic manner by intended receivers. These PN codes are used to encode and decode a user's signal in Asynchronous CDMA in the same manner as the orthogonal codes in synchronous CDMA (shown in the example above). These PN sequences are statistically uncorrelated, and the sum of a large number of PN sequences results in multiple access interference (MAI) that is approximated by a Gaussian noise process (following the central limit theorem in 26 statistics.

Fiber-optic communication
Fiber-optic communication is a method of transmitting information from one place to another by sending pulses of light through an optical fiber. The light forms an electromagnetic carrier wave that is modulated to carry information. First developed in the 1970s, fiberoptic communication systems have revolutionized the telecommunications industry and have played a major role in the advent of the Information Age. Because of its advantages over electrical transmission, optical fibers have largely replaced copper wire communications in core networks in the developed world. The process of communicating using fiber-optics involves the following basic steps: Creating the optical signal involving the use of a transmitter, relaying the signal along the fiber, ensuring that the signal does not become too distorted or weak, receiving the optical signal, and converting it into an electrical signal.
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History
In 1880 Alexander Graham Bell and his assistant Charles Sumner Tainter created a very early precursor to fiberoptic communications, the Photophone, at Bell's newly established Volta Laboratory in Washington, D.C. Bell considered it his most important invention. The device allowed for the transmission of sound on a beam of light. On June 3, 1880, Bell conducted the world's first wireless telephone transmission between two buildings, some 213 meters apart.[1][2] Due to its use of an atmospheric transmission medium, the Photophone would not prove practical until advances in laser and optical fiber technologies permitted28 the secure transport of light.

Technology
Modern fiber-optic communication systems generally include an optical transmitter to convert an electrical signal into an optical signal to send into the optical fiber, a cable containing bundles of multiple optical fibers that is routed through underground conduits and buildings, multiple kinds of amplifiers, and an optical receiver to recover the signal as an electrical signal. The information transmitted is typically digital information generated by computers, telephone systems, and cable television companies.
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Optical fiber communication

Optical fiber can be used as a medium for telecommunication and computer networking because it is flexible and can be bundled as cables. It is especially advantageous for long-distance communications, because light propagates through the fiber with little attenuation compared to electrical cables. This allows long distances to be spanned with few repeaters. The per-channel light signals propagating in the fiber have been modulated at rates as high as 111 gigabits per second (Gbit/s) by NTT,[ although 10 or 40 Gbit/s is typical in deployed systems.[ In June 2013, researchers demonstrated transmission of 400 Gbit/s over a single channel using 4-mode orbital angular momentum mode division multiplexing.[ Each fiber can carry many independent channels, each using a different wavelength of light (wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM)). The net data rate (data rate without overhead bytes) per fiber is the per-channel data rate reduced by the FEC overhead, multiplied by the number of channels (usually up to eighty in commercial dense WDM systems as of 2008). As of 2011 the record for bandwidth on a single core was 101 Tbit/sec (370 channels at 273 Gbit/sec each) The record for a multicore fibre as of January 2013 was 1.05 petabits per second. In 2009, Bell Labs broke the 100 (Petabit per 30 second)kilometre barrier (15.5 Tbit/s over a single 7000 km fiber).[

Principle of operation An optical fiber is a cylindrical dielectric waveguide (nonconducting waveguide) that transmits light along its axis, by the process of total internal reflection. The fiber consists of a core surrounded by a cladding layer, both of which are made of dielectric materials. To confine the optical signal in the core, the refractive index of the core must be greater than that of the cladding. The boundary between the core and cladding may either be abrupt, in step-index fiber, or gradual, in graded-index fiber. 31

Multi-mode fiber
Fiber with large core diameter (greater than 10 micrometers) may be analyzed by geometrical optics. Such fiber is called multi-mode fiber, from the electromagnetic analysis (see below). In a step-index multi-mode fiber, rays of light are guided along the fiber core by total internal reflection. Rays that meet the core-cladding boundary at a high angle (measured relative to a line normal to the boundary), greater than the critical angle for this boundary, are completely reflected. The critical angle (minimum angle for total internal reflection) is determined by the difference in index of refraction between the core and cladding materials. Rays that meet the boundary at a low angle are refracted from the core into the cladding, and do not convey light and hence information along the fiber. The critical angle determines the acceptance angle of the fiber, often reported as a numerical aperture.
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Single-mode fiber
Fiber with a core diameter less than about ten times the wavelength of the propagating light cannot be modeled using geometric optics. Instead, it must be analyzed as an electromagnetic structure, by solution of Maxwell's equations as reduced to the electromagnetic wave equation. The electromagnetic analysis may also be required to understand behaviors such as speckle that occur when coherent light propagates in multimode fiber. As an optical waveguide, the fiber supports one or more confined transverse modes by which light can propagate along the fiber. Fiber supporting only one mode is called single-mode or mono-mode fiber. The behavior of larger-core multi-mode fiber can also be modeled using the wave equation, which shows that such fiber supports more than one mode of propagation (hence the name). The results of such modeling of multi-mode fiber approximately agree with the predictions of 33 geometric optics, if the fiber core is large enough to support more than a few modes.

Wi-Fi
Wi-Fi, also spelled Wi-Fi or Wi-Fi, is a popular technology that allows an electronic device to exchange data or connect to the internet wirelessly using radio waves. The Wi-Fi Alliance defines Wi-Fi as any "wireless local area network (WLAN) products that are based on the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers' (IEEE) standards".[1] However, since most modern WLANs are based on these standards, the term "Wi-Fi" is used in general English as a synonym for "WLAN". Only Wi-Fi products that complete Wi-Fi Alliance interoperability certification testing successfully may use the "Wi-Fi 34 CERTIFIED" trademark.

History
802.11 technology has its origins in a 1985 ruling by the US Federal Communications Commission that released the ISM band for unlicensed use. In 1991, NCR Corporation with AT&T Corporation invented the precursor to intended for use in cashier systems. The first wireless products were under the name WaveLAN. A large number of patents by many companies are used in 802.11 standard.Vic Hayes has been called the "father of Wi-Fi" by some, due to his involvement in negotiating the initial standards within the IEEE while chairing the workgroup.[ A key patent used in Wi-Fi was developed by the Australian radioastronomer John O'Sullivan as a byproduct in a CSIRO research project, "a failed experiment to detect exploding mini black holes the size of an atomic particle In 1992 and 1996, Australian organization CSIRO obtained patents for a method later used in Wi-Fi to "unsmear" the signal. In 1999, the Wi-Fi Alliance was formed as a trade association to hold the Wi-Fi trademark under which most products are sold
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Wi-Fi certification
The IEEE does not test equipment for compliance with their standards. The non-profit Wi-Fi Alliance was formed in 1999 to fill this void to establish and enforce standards for interoperability and backward compatibility, and to promote wireless local-area-network technology. As of 2010, the Wi-Fi Alliance consisted of more than 375 companies from around the world.[23][24] The Wi-Fi Alliance enforces the use of the Wi-Fi brand to technologies based on the IEEE 802.11 standards from the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers. This includes wireless local area network (WLAN) connections, device to device connectivity (such as Wi-Fi Peer to Peer aka Wi-Fi Direct), Personal area network (PAN), local area network (LAN) and even some limited wide area network (WAN) connections. Manufacturers with membership in the Wi-Fi Alliance, whose products pass the certification process, gain the right to mark 36 those products with the Wi-Fi logo.

Internet access
A Wi-Fi-enabled device can connect to the Internet when within range of a wireless network which is configured to permit this. The coverage of one or more (interconnected) access points called hotspots can extend from an area as small as a few rooms to as large as many square miles. Coverage in the larger area may require a group of access points with overlapping coverage. Outdoor public Wi-Fi technology has been used successfully in wireless mesh networks in London, UK.
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City-wide Wi-Fi In the early 2000s, many cities around the world announced plans to construct citywide Wi-Fi networks. There are many successful examples; in 2004, Mysore became India's first Wi-Fi-enabled city and second in the world after Jerusalem. A company called WiFiyNet has set up hotspots in Mysore, covering the complete city and a few nearby villages.[ In 2005, Sunnyvale, California, became the first city in the United States to offer city-wide free Wi-Fi. Minneapolis has generated $1.2 million in profit annually for its provider. In May 2010, London, UK, Mayor Boris Johnson pledged to have London-wide Wi-Fi by 2012. Several boroughs including Westminster and Islington already have extensive outdoor Wi-Fi 38 coverage.

Advantages
Wi-Fi allows cheaper deployment of local area networks (LANs). Also spaces where cables cannot be run, such as outdoor areas and historical buildings, can host wireless LANs. Manufacturers are building wireless network adapters into most laptops. The price of chipsets for Wi-Fi continues to drop, making it an economical networking option included in even more devices.[citation needed] Different competitive brands of access points and client network-interfaces can inter-operate at a basic level of service. Products designated as "Wi-Fi Certified" by the Wi-Fi Alliance are backwards compatible. Unlike mobile phones, any standard Wi-Fi device will work anywhere in the world. Wi-Fi Protected Access encryption (WPA2) is considered secure, provided a strong passphrase is used. New protocols for quality-ofservice (WMM) make Wi-Fi more suitable for latency-sensitive applications (such as voice and 39 video). Power saving mechanisms (WMM Power Save) extend battery life.

Limitations
Spectrum assignments and operational limitations are not consistent worldwide: most of Europe allows for an additional two channels beyond those permitted in the US for the 2.4 GHz band (113 vs. 111), while Japan has one more on top of that (114). As of 2007, Europe is essentially homogeneous in this respect. A Wi-Fi signal occupies five channels in the 2.4 GHz band. Any two channel numbers that differ by five or more, such as 2 and 7, do not overlap. The oft-repeated adage that channels 1, 6, and 11 are the only nonoverlapping channels is, therefore, not accurate. Channels 1, 6, and 11 are the only group of three nonoverlapping channels in the U.S. In Europe and Japan using Channels 1, 5, 9, and 13 for 802.11g and 802.11n is recommended.[citation needed] Equivalent isotropically radiated power (EIRP) in the EU is limited to 20 dBm (100 mW). The current 'fastest' norm, 802.11n, uses double the radio spectrum/bandwidth (40 MHz) compared to 802.11a or 802.11g (20 MHz).[citation needed] This means there can be only one 802.11n network on the 2.4 GHz band at a given location, without interference to/from other WLAN traffic. 802.11n can also be set to use 40 20 MHz bandwidth only to prevent interference in dense community.[citation needed]

Range
Wi-Fi networks have limited range. A typical wireless access point using 802.11b or 802.11g with a stock antenna might have a range of 35 m (120 ft) indoors and 100 m (300 ft) outdoors. IEEE 802.11n, however, can more than double the range.[41] Range also varies with frequency band. Wi-Fi in the 2.4 GHz frequency block has slightly better range than Wi-Fi in the 5 GHz frequency block which is used by 802.11a and optionally by 802.11n. On wireless routers with detachable antennas, it is possible to improve range by fitting upgraded antennas which have higher gain in particular directions. Outdoor ranges can be improved to many kilometers through the use of high gain directional antennas 41 at the router and remote device(s).

Data security risks

The most common wireless encryptionstandard, Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP), has been shown to be easily breakable even when correctly configured. Wi-Fi Protected Access (WPA and WPA2) encryption, which became available in devices in 2003, aimed to solve this problem. Wi-Fi access points typically default to an encryption-free (open) mode. Novice users benefit from a zeroconfiguration device that works out-of-thebox, but this default does not enable any wireless security, providing open wireless access to a LAN. To turn security on requires the user to configure the device, usually via a software graphical user interface (GUI). On unencrypted Wi-Fi networks connecting devices can monitor and record data (including personal information). Such networks can only be secured by using other means of protection, such as a VPN or secure Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTPS) 42 over Transport Layer Security