CHAPTER 3

ENERGY
Sub chapter covered
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Energy transfer by heat and work
3.3 Energy balance
3.4 Work boundary
3.1 Intro
Energy exist in numerous forms.
thermal, mechanical, chemical etc.

Their sum constitute Total Energy on a
unit mass, e

m
E
e =
(kJ/kg)
energy
Macroscopic E
Microscopic E
Macroscopic E: form of energy are
those a system possesses as a whole
with respect to some outside reference
frame. eg: kinetic, potential energy.

Microscopic E: energy related to the
molecular structure of a system and the
degree of molecular activity.
Independent of outside reference frame.
Sum of all microscopic energy forms called
internal energy, U
Macroscopic energy of a system is related
to motion and the influence of some
external effect (gravity, magnetism,
electricity & surface tension).

Internal Energy
1) Translational energy
2) Rotational kinetic energy
3) Vibrational kinetic energy
4) Spin energy
5) Sensible energy
6) Latent energy
7) Chemical energy
8) Nuclear energy

Kinetic Energy (KE)?

Potential Energy (PE)?

Total E of the system?

Flow Energy
Kinetic Energy (KE): energy that a
system possesses as a result of its
motion relative to some reference frame.
) (
2
2
kJ
V
m KE=
Potential Energy (PE): energy that
a system possesses as a result of its
elevation in a gravitational field.

) (kJ mgz PE
(kJ)
Total E of the system (closed
system):

) (
2
2
kJ mgz
V
m U PE KE U E
FLOW ENERGY
Closed system: stationary system
Open system (control vol.): involved
fluid flow
Mass flow rate, : amount of mass
flowing through a cross section perunit
time.

m

) / ( s kg V m

3.2 ENERGY TRANSFER
E transfer
By heat,
Q
By work,
W
Mechanisms:
Conduction
Convection
Radiation
Directional quantity
Q
in
Q
out

E transfer by heat,
Q
Other than E by heat
Force acting through
distance
Directional quantity:
W
in
W
out

E transfer by work,
W

E transfer by work,
W
Electrical work, W
e
Shaft work, W
sh
Spring work, W
spring


3.3 ENERGY BALANCE
The conservation of E can expressed as:
E E E
in out system
= A
1) Mechanisms of Energy
Transfer, E
in
and E
out
Heat transfer, Q = 0, for adiabatic system

Work transfer, W = 0, if no work
involved

Mass transfer, m = 0, for closed system
2) Energy change of the
system, E
system
AE
system
= E
final
- E
initial
= E
2
- E
1

A E = A U + A KE + A PE
where
A U = m (u
2
u
1
)
A KE = (m )(V
2
2
- V
1
2
)
A PE = mg (z
2
z
1
)

system out mass in mass out in out in out in
E E E W W Q Q E E
Balance Energy Overall
A = + + = ) ( ) ( ) (
, ,
Discussion on Problem 2.10

Assignment on:
Problem 2-49
Problem 2-50
CHAPTER 3

HEAT, WORK AND MASS
Sub-chapter covered

3.4 Work boundary

Boundary Work

Boundary work occurs because the mass of the substance
contained within the system boundary
} } } }
= = = =
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
PdV Ads
A
F
Fds W W
b b
o
The boundary work is equal to the area under the
process curve plotted on the pressure-volume
diagram
Note from the figure:

P is the absolute pressure and is
always positive.

When dV is positive, Wb is
positive.

When dV is negative, Wb is
negative.
Some Typical Processes
a) Constant volume

If the volume is held
constant, dV = 0, and the
boundary work equation
becomes
0
2
1
= =
}
PdV W
b
b) Constant pressure

If the pressure is held constant,
the boundary work equation
becomes
( )
1 2
2
1
2
1
V V P dV P PdV W
b
= = =
} }
P-V diagram for V = constant P-V diagram for P = constant
P
V
1
2
P
V
1 2
c) Constant temperature, ideal gas

If the temperature of an ideal gas system is held constant, then
the equation of state provides the pressure-volume relation
V
mRT
P =
Then, the boundary work is
|
|
.
|

\
|
= = =
} }
1
2
2
1
2
1
ln
V
V
mRT dV
V
mRT
PdV W
b
Note: The above equation is the result of applying the ideal gas
assumption for the equation of state. For real gases undergoing
an isothermal (constant temperature) process, the integral in
the boundary work equation would be done numerically.
d) The polytropic process

The polytropic process is one in which the pressure-volume
relation is given as
PV
n
= C (where n and C is constant)

The exponent n may have any value from minus infinity to plus
infinity depending on the process. Some of the more common
values are given below.
Process Exponent n
Constant pressure 0
Constant volume
Isothermal & ideal gas 1
Adiabatic & ideal gas k = C
P
/C
V

Here, k is the ratio of the specific heat at constant pressure C
P
to
specific heat at constant volume C
V
.
The boundary work done during the polytropic process is
found by substituting the pressure-volume relation into
the boundary work equation
} }
= =
2
1
2
1
dV
V
Const
PdV W
n
b
1 , ln
1 ,
1
1
2
1 1 2 2
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
=

=
n
V
V
PV
n
n
V P V P
For an ideal gas undergoing a polytropic process, the boundary work
} }
= =
2
1
2
1
dV
V
Const
PdV W
n
b
( )
1 , ln
1 ,
1
1
2
1 2
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
=

=
n
V
V
mRT
n
n
T T mR
Discussion

1. A frictionless piston-cylinder device initially contains 200L of
saturated liquid refrigerant R134a. The piston is free to move
and its mass is such that it maintains a pressure of 800 kPa on
the refrigerant. The refrigerant is now heated until its
temperature rises to 50C. Calculate the work done during this
process and show the process in P-v diagram


2. Air enters a nozzle steadily at 2.21 kg/m
3
and 30 m/s and leave
at 0.762 kg/m
3
and 180 m/s. If the inlet area of the nozzle is 80
cm
2
, determine
a) the mass flow rate through the nozzle
b) the exit area of the nozzle
Assignment 5:
Problem 4.8, 4.9, 4.12, 4.18
To be continue