1

Physical properties of soils

Definitions
Calculations
Their Relationships
Why they are important
Porosity
2
1m
1
m

The volume of void
space in 1 m
3
of soil is
porosity
n
Void ratio
1m
1
m

The volume of void
space in 1 m
3
of soil is
n, the volume of sold
is then 1-n.
The void ratio e is
1
n
e
n
=

Water content
4
1m
1
m

The weight of water in
1 m
3
of soil is w
w
, and
the weight of soil
particles is w
s
.
w
s
W
w
W
=
Water content is
Saturation
5
1m
1
m

The volume of water in
1 m
3
of soil is V
w
, and
the volume of the void
space is V.
w
V
s
V
=
V
w
The saturation is
Bulk unit weight
6
1m
1
m

The weight of water and
soil particles in 1 m
3
of
soil is W
The bulk unit weight is
3
) 1 1 1 ( m
W
b

=
W
Dry unit weight
7
1m
1
m

The weight of soil
particles in 1 m
3
of soil
is Q,
The dry unit weight is
3
) 1 1 1 ( m
Q
d

=
Q
Saturated unit weight
8
1m
1
m

When soil is fully
saturated, the weight
of water and soil
particles is W
s
,
the saturated unit
weight is
3
1 1 1
s
s
W
m
=
( )
W
s
Specific gravity
1m
1
m

W1
1m
1
m

W2
1 m
3
of soil
particles is W1,
1 m
3
of pure
water is W2,
1
2
W
G
W
=
Specific gravity, G, is
Who cares!!!
Applying example 1
An embankment for the part of a highway in forest is
to be constructed by compacting clay to dry unit
weight of 18 kN/m
3
. The clay will be bought from a
site in its neighbouring county. The unit weight and
water content of the clay in the site are17kN/m
3
and
5%, respectively. The embankment is 5000m
3
.
Calculate how many clay the builder needs to buy.


It is easy to measure water content and unit
weight on a building site.




12
The water content and unit weight are measured by taking
soil samples from the site using metal cores (or tins), and
then drying them in an oven.
Others have to be calculated using water
content and the unit weight.
A soil have many properties; some are
measurable and others are not. The non-
measurable properties must be calculated.
14
A easy way to remember the
relationship between soil properties
Volume of
Soil
particles
air
water
Take a block of soil; assume the volume of the soil
particles is 1 m
3
. The volume of air is then the void ratio, e.
1
e
Use of the chart
Solid
air
water
1
G
w

Se
w
e
Phase Diagram
volumes
Weights
15
Se
S is saturation
Volume of the water: Se
Weight of the water: S e
w

Weight of soil particles: G r
w

16
If you can get this right, others will be a piece of cake..
1
G
w

Se
w
Se
e
solid
air
water
How to use the chart
Solid
air
water
1
G
w

Ser
w
e
Phase Diagram
volumes
Weights
17
Se
Water content
w
w
S e S e
w
G G

= =

How to use the chart
Solid
air
water
1
G
w

Ser
w
e
Phase Diagram
volumes
Weights
18
Se
Bulk unit weight
b w w
W S e G = +
Weight of the soil and water:
1 V e = +
Volume of the soil:
1
b w w
b
W S e G
V e
+
= =
+
How to use the chart
Solid
air
water
1
G
w

Ser
w
e
Phase Diagram
volumes
Weights
19
Se
Dry unit weight
d w
W G =
Weight of the dry soil:
1 V e = +
Volume of the soil:
1
d w
d
W G
V e

= =
+
The example
An embankment for the part of a highway in forest is
to be constructed by compacting clay to dry unit
weight of 18 kN/m
3
. The clay will be bought from a
site in its neighbouring county. The unit weight and
water content of the clay in the site are17kN/m
3
and
5%, respectively. The embankment is 5000m
3
.
Calculate how many clay the builder needs to buy.

Bulk unit weight

1
w w
b
S e G
e
+
=
+
Dry unit weight

1
w
d
G
e

=
+
Water content

S e
w
G

=
Solid
air
water
1
G
w

Ser
w
e
volumes
Weights
Se
1 1
b w w w
d
S e G G
e e
+
=
+ +
S e G
G
+
= 1
S e
G

= +
1 w = +
1
b
d
w

= +

1
b
d
w

=
+
The dry weight of 1 m
3
of soil in the buying site is

17
16.1
0.05 1
d
kN = =
+
1 m
3
of embankment is 18kN, and needs


18/16.1=1.18 m
3
of soil from the buying site.

The embankment needs 50001.18=5900m
3
23
Pore water pressure and
effective normal stress
Dr. X. Zhang

Civil Engineering
School of Engineering
1.1. Where is the water in soil?
A typical soil profile
Groundwater table
Water content
24
Groundwater table
Unsaturated soil
Saturated soil
1.2. Difference between water in saturated
and unsaturated soils
25
Water flows from high pressure
area to low pressure area.
Unsaturated soil Saturated soil
In comparison with atmospheric
pressure, what is the water pressure
in saturated and unsaturated soils?
Adsorb water
Drain water
1.3. The difference between water in
saturated and unsaturated soils
The water pressure in unsaturated soil is lower than atmospheric
pressure (assumed to be zero), and is therefore negative.

Water pressure in saturated soil is higher than atmospheric
pressure, and is thus positive.

In unsaturated soil, the void space is filled by both water & air.

In saturated soil, the void space is fully filled by water.
26
1.4. Pore Water Pressure in saturated and
unsaturated soils
27
H
In unsaturated soil, the
pressure of water is negative
(lower than atmospheric
pressure), thereby holding
soil particles together.
In saturated soil, water is
pressurized, thereby intending
to push soil particles apart.
The pressure imposed by
water to soil particles is called
Pore Water Pressure.
28
1.4.1. Implications in engineering
In unsaturated condition, water can
hold soil particles, making soil
hydraulically cohesive and able to
sustain shear stress.
In saturated condition, water pushes
soil particles apart, making soil
hydraulically COHENSIONLESS and
unable to sustain shear stress .
Why landslides are likely to happen after
heavy rain
29
Landslides at different scales
Philippines landslide in 2006
Central Scotland
Sand liquefaction when sand is
saturated
30
Sand soil could collapse when fully saturated
Unsaturated Saturated
SOS!!!
Tackle liquefaction when building
structures over sand soil
31
Palm tree in Dubai, United Arab emirates
3. Pore Water Pressure in Soil
32
3.1. Pore water pressure in soil
33
H

w
H

w
H
Pore water remains
the same!!
When the column is
filled by soil.
Hydrostatic
condition
A column of water
3.2. Pore water pressure in soil
34
H
The value of water pressure?
PORE WATER PPRESSURE will be
denoted by u
True or false

Pore water pressure increase as
soil density decreases?
It is false. Soil properties DO
NOT affect Pore Water
Pressure.
It is
w
H
4. Vertical normal stress in soil
35
A
Q
t
= o
A is the cross-sectional area(assumed to be 1 m
2
)
V Q
b
= ) (AH
b
=
H
A
HA
A
Q
b
b
t
=

= = o
H
Q
Unsaturated soil
Load = The weight of soil: Q
Vertical normal stress o
t

Normal stress = force (load) / area

b

4.1. Vertical normal stress
36
H
2
Q2
H
1
1 1
H H
sat b t
+ = o
Part is saturated and part is unsaturated
A is the cross-sectional area
Q1
) ( 1
1
A H Q
b
=
) ( 2
2
A H Q
sat
=
A H A H
Q Q Q
sat b 2 1
2 1
+ =
+ =
Soil weight: Q = Q1+Q2
A
Q
stress normal
t
= o
4.2. When soil is subjected to a load
37
A
PA Q
t
+
= o
) ( ) (
2 1
A H A H Q
sat b
+ =
P H H
sat b t
+ + = o
1 1
P
Part Saturated & Part unsaturated
H
2
Q
H
1
4.3. Effective normal stress
Soils are three-phase materials (air, water
and solid particles). When a soil is subjected
to a load, the load and the weight of the soil
will be taken by all the three phases. The
effective normal stress refers to the load
taken by soil particles over an unit area.
4.3. Effective stress
39
A spring insider a cylinder filled with water.
Piston with a valve
Both water and spring
take the load of the piston
The load is entirely taken by
water (water is pressurized)
The load is transferred to
the spring
The load taken by the spring is defined as effective stress.
Q
4.4. Effective stress in saturated soil
Q
Saturated soil consists of water and solid. All the load will be taken
by water if water does not flow. That is, the load taken by the solid
particles (or effective normal stress) remains unchanged.
When water flows, the pressurised water is dissipated and the load is
transferred to soil skeleton. The effective stress increases as a result.
4.5. Effective stress looked at microscopic scale

= N Q'
A N/ '

= o
The effective stress is the load taken by soil skeleton in per unit area of soil
Q
N
N N
N
P P
P P
The load taken by soil skeleton:
The load taken by water:

= P Q ' '
The total load: ' ' ' Q Q Q + =
The load taken by water in per unit area soil is the hydrostatic pressure:
u A P =

/
In soil, the normal stress is
the load (downward force)
acting at a horizontal plane
of 1 m
2
(the plane between
the top ball and the three
balls at the bottom).
Calculating effective stress: An illustrative example
Load
Calculating effective stress
Buoyancy
The normal load acting
on the plane is:
Load buoyancy
Forces when the load is
submerged in water:
Load
Calculating effective stress
The force
= load + weight of soil particles
The
principle is
the same in
soil
Load
weight
Pore water pressure and effective normal stress
Weight
When soil is submerged in water
Pore water pressure and effective normal stress
The force =load + weight of soil - buoyancy
Pore water pressure and effective normal stress
buoyancy
Pore water pressure and effective normal stress
= weight of the water being pushed away
4.6. Calculate the effective normal stress in saturated
soil when water is in hydrostatic condition
H

Normal force=extra load + self weight - buoyancy
Extra load =0

Self weight
Buoyancy
sat
A H Q = ) (
w sat
A) H A) H force = ( ( normal
( ) ' = = H A H A
w sat
tion cross
force normal
stress effective
sec
= '
'
=

= H
A
H A
' : Submerged unit weight
A is the cross-sectional area
Q: weight

w
A H = ) (
A u =
4.8. Effective stress when part of a soil is
saturated
H
2
Normal force = self-weight buoyancy,
sat b
A H A H weight self + = ) ( ) (
2 1
A H A H A H force normal
w sat b
+ =
2 2 1
H
1
A
A H A H A H
stress effective
w sat b
+
= o
2 2 1
) (
2 1
) ( H H
w sat b
+ =
2 1
'H H
b
+ =
' : Submerged unit weight
A is cross-sectional area.

w
A H buoyancy =
2
Worked Example
51
Pore water pressure below the groundwater is at hydrostatic
condition . Calculate the effective stress at depths of: 1m, 3m, 6m and
10m. Take the unit weight of water as
w
=10kN/m
3
.
Solution
At depth 1 m:
The weight of overlying soil at depth 1 m is 117=17kN. The soil is
unsaturated, the pore pressure is therefore u=0. The effective stress is the
same as the total normal stress, that is, o
t
=o'=17kN/m
2
.
At depth 3 m:
The weight of the overlying soil at depth 3 m is 117+218=53kN. The
soil is unsaturated, and the pore pressure is therefore u=0. The effective
and the total stresses are the same, o
t
=o'= 53kN/m
2
At depth 6 m:
The weight of the overlying soil at depth 6 m is 117+218+320=113kN.
Part of the soil is saturated, and the pore pressure is u=310=30kN/m
2
.
The total stress is o
t
=113kN/m
2,
, the effective stress is o'=o
t
-u=113-
30=83kN/m
2

At depth 10 m:
The weight of the overlying soil at depth 10 m is
117+218+320+419=189kN. Part of the soil is saturated, and the pore
pressure is u=710=70kN/m
2
. The total stress is o
t
=189kN/m
3,
, and the
effective stress is o'=o
t
-u=189-70=119kN/m
2



52
10m
1m
3m
6m

b
=17

b
=18

b
=20

b
=19
Soil water, pore pressure &
effective normal stress
The End
53
Example 1
solid
air
water
1
G
w

Se
w
e
Phase Diagram
Volume
Mass
54
Se
A well compacted sandy clay had a bulk unit
weight
b
=19.6kNm
-3
and water content of
w=17%. Assuming specific gravity G=2.7 and
unit weight of the water
w
=9.8kNm
-3
,
calculate


1) void ratio;
2) degree of saturation,
3) dry unit weight.
solid
air
water
1
G
w

Se
w
e
Phase Diagram
Volume Mass
55
w
w
Se Se
w
G G

= =

Se
Gw Se=
1
W W
b
G Gw
e
+
=
+
(1 )
1
W
b
G w
e
+
+ =

(1 )
1
W
b
G w
e
+
=

( )
2.7 1 0.17 9.8
1
19.6
+
= 579 . 0 1 579 . 1 = =
Void ratio e
1
W W
b
G Se
e
+
=
+




solid
air
water
1
G
w

Se
w
e
Phase Diagram
Volume Mass
56
Se
G
Se
w=
e
Gw
S =
579 . 0
17 . 0 7 . 2
=
79 . 0 =
Degree of Saturation S:

Example 2
Find the void ratio and porosity of:
a sample of loose sand with dry unit weight of 16.68 kNm
-3

a sample of dense sand with dry density of 19.6kNm
-3


57
Solution
From the definition of dry unit weight




Therefore,





58
soil
air
water
1
G
w

Ser
w
Se
e
Phase Diagram
volume
Weights
1
w
d
G
e

=
+
2.7 9.8
1 0.6865
16.68
e

= =
1
w
d
G
e

=

For the loose sand, the void ratio is

and the porosity n is
% 7 . 40
6865 . 0 1
6865 . 0
1
=
+
=
+
=
e
e
n
Solution
59
2.7 9.8
1 0.35
19.6
e

= =
For the dens sand, the void ratio is
and the porosity n is
% 9 . 25
35 . 0 1
35 . 0
1
=
+
=
+
=
e
e
n
Example 3
In a water content determination, M
1
is the mass of the tin
and lid plus the soil sample, M
2
is the mass of the tin and lid
plus the sample after complete drying at 105
0
C, and M
0
is the
mass of the tin and lid. Find the water content in each of the
following cases :

(a) M
1
= 57.639gm, M
2
= 52.057gm, M
0
= 30.168gm

(b) M
1
= 59.060gm, M
2
= 51.636gm, M
0
= 33.215gm

60
Solution
61
SOLID of weight
water of weight
w =
From the definition
% 5 . 25
255 . 0 889 . 21 / 582 . 5
168 . 30 057 . 52
057 . 52 639 . 57
0 2
2 1
=
= =

=
w
M M
M M
w a)
% 3 . 40
403 . 0 421 . 18 / 424 . 7
215 . 33 639 . 51
639 . 51 060 . 59
0 2
2 1
=
= =

=
w
M M
M M
w b)
Example 4
A clay layer 3.66m thick rests
beneath a deposit of submerged
sand 7.92m thick. The top of the
sand is located 3.05 m below the
surface of a lake. The saturated unit
weight of the sand and the clay is
19.62 kN/m
3
and 18.36 kN/m
3,

respectively
Find
2) the pore water pressure,
3) and effective vertical stress,
at the mid-height of the clay layer.
62
Solution
Weight (soil & water) above the middle of the clay layer:
63
Water in the lake (w1): w1=3.59.81=34.34kN
The saturated sand (w2) w2=7.9219.92=157.76kN
The saturated clay (w3) w2=3.66/218.36=33.6kN
The total stress is: o
t
= (w1+w2+w3)/A
o
t
= (34.34+157.76+33.6)/(1m1m)=225.7kN/m
2

Water pressure: u=(3.5+7.92+3.66/2) 9.81=129.98kN/m
2


Effective normal stress: o'= o
t
u=225.7-129.98=95.72kN/m
2


Example 5
A layer of fine sand 6 m
thick overlies a thick bed of
soft clay. The groundwater
table is 2m below the
surface. In the zone above
the groundwater table, the
average degree of saturation
of the sand is 70%. The sand
has a porosity of 35% and the
clay has a water content of
40%. Calculate the effective
normal stress at the depth of
10 m below the ground
surface (assume G=2.7)
64
NB

Use the phases relationships to
calculate the bulk unit weights of the
clay and sand.
Solution
The unit weight of a soil is




65
soil
air
water
1
G
w

Ser
w
Se
e
Phase Diagram
volume
Weights
e
Se G
w w
b
+
+
=
1
e
e
n
+
=
1
Unit weight of the sand above the water table:
Need to calculate the void ratio and
saturation first
54 . 0
35 . 0 1
35 . 0
1
=

=
n
n
e
2
/ 64 . 20 81 . 9
54 . 0 1
54 . 0 7 . 2
m kN
sat
=
+
+
=
w b
e
Se G

+
+
=
1
Unit weight of the sand below the water table:
The saturation is 1
2
/ 61 . 19 81 . 9
54 . 0 1
54 . 0 7 . 0 7 . 2
m kN
b
=
+
+
=
Unit weight of the clay (Saturation is 1)
G
e
G
Se
G
Se
w
w
w
= =

=
08 . 1 7 . 2 4 . 0 = = = Gw e
2
/ 83 . 17 81 . 9
08 . 1 1
08 . 1 7 . 2
m kN
b
=
+
+
=
Solution (cont.)
The weight of each layer:
66
Unsaturated sand (w1): w1=219.61=39.22kN
Saturated sand (w2): w2=420.64=82.56kN
Clay (w3): w3=417.83=71.32kN
The total stress is (o
t
): o
t
= (w1+w2+w3)/A
o
t
= (39.22+82.56+71.32)/(1m1m)=193.1kN/m
2

Water pressure u: u=(4+4) 9.81=74.48kN/m
2


Effective pressure o': o'= o
t
u=193.1-74.48=118.62kN/m
2


Example 6
A wide embankment 5m high
is built on the ground
described in Example 5. The
material of the bank: Water
content, 12.5% , dry density,
1860kgm
-3
. Find the vertical
effective stress in the clay at a
depth of 7.33m below the
ground surface.
67
e 1
Se G

w w
b
+
+
=
The bulk unit weight of the
embankment materials:
S(?) (?) e
Embankment
Example 6
68
e 1
Se G

w w
b
+
+
=
The bulk unit weight of the
embankment materials:
S(?) (?) e
3
/ 1860
1
1000 7 . 2
1
m kN
e e
G

: density dry of definition the From

w
d
=
+

=
+

=
452 . 0
1860
1000 7 . 2
=

= 1 e
7 . 2
452 . 0 S
G
Se
G
Se
w
: content water of definition the From
w
w
= =

=
747 . 0 452 . 0 / 125 . 0 7 . 2 452 . 0 / 7 . 2 = = = w S
3
/ 54 . 20 81 . 9
451 . 0 1
452 . 0 747 . 0 7 . 2
:
m kN
nit weight The bulk u
b
=
+
+
=
Solution (cont.)
The total weight:
69
Unsaturated sand (w2): w2=219.61=39.22kN
Saturated sand (w3): w3=420.64=82.56kN
Clay (w4): w4=1.3317.83=23.71kN
The total stress is (o
t
): o
t
= (w1+w2+w3+w4)/A
o
t
= (102.7+39.22+82.56+23.71)/(1m1m)=248.19kN/m
2

Water pressure: u=(7.33-2) 9.81=52.29kN/m
2


Effective normal stress: o'= o
t
u=248.19-52.29=195.9kN/m
2


The embankment: (w1): w1=520.54=102.7kN