Introduction to Soil Mechanics

Dr. Xiaoxian Zhang

Civil Engineering
School of Engineering
(XZ)
Pisa tower
Why soil mechanics?
The tower at Pisa is 46m
high and about 4.5m
out of vertical centre
(9.7% of its height).

Massive 20m
strengthening in 2007
has saved it from
collapse. Founded on
sand and clay layers.


1590 Galileo
Why is Pisa tower is falling?
A tower in Venice
A tower in Venice
Grand canal in Venice
House on the two sides of Grand Canal
House on the two sides of Grand Canal
Civil Engineering
Structure Engineering
Geotechnical Engineering
Water Engineering
Water supply
Water treatment
What is soil mechanics?
In terms of science:
Soil mechanics is a combination of fluid mechanics
and solid mechanics to understand the
ENGINEERING behaviour of soil in response to
engineering structures to be erected on it: Can the
soil withstand the structures? If not,

In terms of engineering
How to reinforce the soil to make it able to
support the structures.
Soil Mechanics at Liverpool

At Liverpool the courses involving SOILS ( All 7.5 credits ) are:


YEAR 1: GEOLOGY (first semester)

YEAR 2: SOIL MECHANICS (CIVE224) (X. Zhang)
YEAR 3: SOIL MECHANICS (CIVE321) (X. Zhang)
YEAR 4: FOUNDATION ENGINEERING ( CIVE421 / 621 )
Be able to design shallow foundations
After finishing BEng
Be able to design foundation for docks
After finishing BEng
Understand how to design retaining wall
Retaining wall for road cut.
Retaining wall for building.
After finishing BEng
A massive slope failure in Victoria Australia in 2007
Be able to design earth slops
After finishing BEng
Be able to design deep foundation

Pile foundation for bridges
After finishing BEng

Pile foundation for offshore wind farms
Be able to design foundation for
off-shore structures
After finishing BEng

Pile foundation for offshore platform rig
Be able to design foundation for
off-shore structures
After finishing BEng
Be able to design reinforced retaining walls
After finishing Beng
Soil Mechanics (CIVE 224)
Main Topics:
Physical properties of soil
Water flow in soil (seepage)
Shear Strength of soil and its measurement
Design earth slopes
Theory for designing retaining walls
Consolidation (ground subsidence)

Total lectures: 18
Assessment
Coursework (30%)
Measure the permeability of a coarse sand (10%)
in first semester.
Measure the shear strength of a sand using direct
shear box(10%) in second semester.
Measure the shear strength of a saturated clay
(10%) in second semester.

Written examination (70%)
Answer four compulsory questions in three hours.
Recommended Readings
Books
Barnes GE (1995), Soil Mechanics: Principles and Practice,
MacMillan Press Limited.
Smith GN and Smith IGN (2007), Elements of Soil
Mechanics, 7th Edition, Blackwell Science.
Whitlow R (2001). Basic Soil Mechanics, 4
th
Edition, Prentice
Hall.



E-book
Murphy VN(2002). Geotechnical Engineering: Principle and
practice of soil mechanics and foundation engineering.
Powrie W (2004). Soil mechanics: Concept & application,
Taylor & Francis.
Any inquires & suggestions:
X. Zhang (Room 510, Brodie Tower), xiaoxian.zhang@liv.ac.uk


1. Soil properties and classification
Why soil properties?
Weight of the left leg
Design foundations without soil mechanics
= Weight of the left leg
A high-rise building in China
A safe design?
Weight of left leg=W
Weight of removed soil >W
Saturated soil
Weight of right leg=W
Saturated soil
How much soil should we remove for each leg?
Design foundation with soil mechanics
How do the piles work?
Design foundation with soil mechanics
If the soil is very hard!
Design foundation with soil mechanics
What is the soil is soft?
Design foundation with soil mechanics
What is the soil is soft?
Design foundation with soil mechanics
How hard is hard?
How soft is soft?
Soil properties and classification
Classification of the particles in soil
F- Fine; M-Medium; C - Coarse

Particle size (mm)

<0.002

0.002 ~ 0.06

0.06 ~ 2

>2

Particle name

Clay

Silt

Sand

Gravel

Particle size (mm)

<0.002

0.002 ~ 0.06

0.06 ~ 2

>2

Particle name

Clay
Silt Sand Gravel
F M C F M C F M C
All systems specify clay particles as < 2 microns ( 1mm= 1000 microns ).
(2x10
-6
m or 2m ( micrometres ) .
Massachusetts Institute of Technology Standards (British Standards)
PSD is the percentage of soil particles falling within
each band of the particle sizes ( i. e, clay, silt sand etc).
Methods to measure PSD
Sieves for coarse soils.
Hydrometer for fine soils.

Sieve Analysis
1.1 Classification based on
particle size distribution (PSD)
From this graph, one can estimate the percentage
of gravel, sand, silt and clay particles.
0
20
40
60
80
100
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10
Sieve size (mm)
D
30
sieve hydrometer
D
10
= 0.013 mm
D
30
= 0.47 mm
D
60
= 7.4 mm
sands gravels
fines
%

P
a
s
s
i
n
g
Grading curve
D
10
and D
60

Uniformity coefficient: U = D
60
/D
10


0
20
40
60
80
100
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Particle size (mm)
D
30
sieve hydrometer
D
10
= 0.013 mm
D
30
= 0.47 mm
D
60
= 7.4 mm
sands gravels
fines
%

P
a
s
s
i
n
g
1.2. Two important sizes in PSD
D
10
D
60


Soil B
Soil A
Question 2: What is the lowest uniform coefficient? 1
Soil C
Question 1: Which soil is more uniform?
Soil D
1.4. Soil classification based on PSD
Massachusetts Institute of Technology Classification Chart.


From PSD

Silt: 20%
Clay: 15%
Sand: 65%
X-y coordinate
38
x
0
1.4. Soil classification based on PSD
Massachusetts Institute of Technology Classification Chart.


From PSD

Silt: 20%
Clay: 15%
Sand: 65%
Sandy loam
1.4. Classification based on PSD
Examples


NB. Read values at 60 to increasing percentage lines
60
O
Clay
Silty loam
Are the clay and sand the same?
Sand
Clay
Does the property of clay change
with water in it?
2. Classification of clays
42
Behaviour of clay as water content increases
Solid Plastic Liquid
w
S
w
P
w
L
w
L
Liquid limit: a water content at which the soil ceases to be liquid
and becomes plastic
w
P
Plastic limit: a water content at which the soil ceases to be
plastic and becomes semi-plastic solid.
w
s
Shrinking limit: a water content at which the drying-shrinkage at
constant stress ceases.

2.1. Chang of volume with water content
The soil is plastic between W
L
and W
P
and this rang is called
plastic range.

The value of (W
L
- W
P
) is called Plasticity Index (PI).
Activity coefficient A: A=PI/ percentage of clay particles
w
S
w
P
w
L

It is defined as the MOISTURE CONTENT at which a standard CONE
penetrates 20mm into the clay sample when released for 5 seconds.
Cone Penetrometer.
2.2. Measure the liquid limit ( W
L
) Method 1
30
The liquid limit W
L
is the water content when the
penetration distance (in 5 seconds) is 20 mm.
45
Plot the cone penetration distance against
water content (moisture content).
2.2. Measure the liquid limit (W
L
) Method 2

It is defined as the MOISTURE CONTENT at which a standard 2mm
groove in a clay sample in a standard cup closes after being dropped
25 times from a height of 1cm.
Groove in a clay before and after the test.
2.3. Measure the plastic limit (W
P
)

It is the MOISTURE CONTENT at which a piece of clay crumbles
when rolled to an 3mm diameter thread.
Plastic limit test.
2.4. Measure the Shrinking limit (W
S
)
Defined as the boundary between the SEMI-SOLID and the SOLID
states and is the MOISTURE CONTENT at which a soil ceases to
lose volume but continues to lose weight when dried.

It can be estimated by drying a thin sample of clay formed in a
special mould (cylinder 76mmlong and 38 mm in diameter) as
shown below;
Linear shrinkage test.
How many things can you see inside the soil?
3. Physical Properties of Soils:
Phase relationship
Industrial CT
scanner
Solid
Water
Air
50
Soil is a three-phase material, containing solid
particles, and void space.
The void space is filled by water and air.
51
The three phases in a soil
Is the water volume in a soil a constant?
52
Phase relationship: In volume, mass
and weight
Squash
Phase Volume
Air
V
a

Water
V
w

Solid
V
s

Mass
M
a

M
w

M
s

Weight
W
a

W
w

W
s

Solid
53
3.1. Objective of phase relationship
To determine the relative content of each phase
in terms of its volume, mass and weight.
solid
air
water
V
s

V
a
M
a
=0
M
s

M
w

M
t

V
w

V
v

V
t

Phase Diagram
Notation:
V Volume
M Mass
W Weight


Subscribes
s solid
w water
a air

54
3.2.2. Porosity (n) is the volume of void
space in a unit volume of soil.
solid
air
water
V
v

V
t

Phase Diagram
t
v
V
V
n
X 100%
Theoretical range: 0 100%
55
3.2.3. Void Ratio (e) is the ratio of void
volume to the volume of solid in a unit
volume of soil.
Phase Diagram
s
v
V
V
e=
solid
air
water
V
s

V
v

Theoretical range: >0
56
3.2.4. Degree of Saturation (S) is the percentage
of void volume that is filled by water
Phase Diagram
v
w
V
V
S =
Range: 0 100%
X 100%
Dry
Saturated
solid
air
water
V
a

V
w

V
v

57
3.3. Phase relations in mass/volume
3.3.1. Bulk Density (
m
) is the mass of soil (water
& solid) in a unit volume of soil.
solid
air
water
M
a
=0
M
s

M
w

M
t

Phase Diagram
t
t
m
V
M
=
Units: g/ml, kg/m
3

V
t
t
w s
V
M M +
=
58
3.3.2. Saturated Density (
sat
) is the mass
(water & solid) in a unit volume of soil when
the void is fully filled by water.
solid
air
water
M
s

M
w

M
t

t
w s
sat
V
M M +
=
Units: g/ml, kg/m
3

V
t

59
3.3.3. Submerged Density () is the difference
between the saturated density and the
density of water(approximately 1000kg/m
3
)
=
sat
-
w

The density of water is the mass of a unit volume of
water, and its value is approximately 1000kg/m
3

60
3.3.4. Dry Density (
d
) is the mass of solid (dry
soil only) in a unit volume of soil.
Phase Diagram
t
s
d
V
M
=
Units: g/ml, kg/m
3

Solid
air
M
a
=0
M
s

V
t

61
3.3.5. Water content (w) is the ratio of the mass
of water and the mass of solid (dry soil) in a
unit volume of soil.
solid
air
water
W
a
=0
W
s

W
w

Phase Diagram
s
w
W
W
w=
Unit: n/a
V
t

62
3.3.6. Specific Gravity (G) is the ratio between
the dry unit density of solid particles and the
unit density of water.
,
w
d
G

=
Specific gravity tells the
relative weight of soil to water.
If G
s
>1, soil is heavier than
water, otherwise it is lighter
than water and float.
w d
G =
63
3.3.6. Specific Gravity (G) can also be defined
as the ratio between the dry unit mass of soil
and the unit mass of water.
,
w
d
G

=
Specific gravity tells the
relative weight of soil to water.
If G
s
>1, soil is heavier than
water, otherwise it is lighter
than water.
w d
G =
64
3.4. Phase relation in weight/volume
3.4.1. Dry Unit Weight (
d
) is the weight of
solid (dry soil) in a unit volume of soil.
solid
air
water
W
a
=0
W
s

W
w

Phase Diagram
t
s
d
V
W
=
Unit: kN/m
3

V
t

65
3.4.2. Bulk Unit Weight (
b
) is the weight of soil
(solid & water) in a unit volume of soil.
solid
air
water
W
a
=0
W
s

W
w

Phase Diagram
t
w s
b
V
W W +
=
Units: kN/m
3

V
t

66
3.4.4. Saturated Unit Weight (
sat
) is the weight of
a unit volume of soil when it is fully saturated.
solid
air
water
W
s

W
w

V
t

Phase Diagram
t
w s
sat
V
W W +
=
Unit: kN/m
3

67
3.4.5. Unit Weight of water (
w
) is the weight
of a unit volume of water.
soil
air
water W
w

V
t

Phase Diagram
3
/ 9810 m kN
V
W
T
w
w
= =
Unit: kN/m
3

68
3.4.6. Submerged Unit Weight (') is the
difference between the saturated unit
weight and the unit weight of water.
solid
air
water
W
s

W
w

V
t

Phase Diagram
w sat
'
=
Units: kN/m
3

69
3.4.7. Specific Gravity (G) is the ratio between
the dry unit weight of solid particles and the
unit weight of water.
,
w
d
G

=
Specific gravity tells the
relative weight of soil to water.
If G
s
>1, soil is heavier than
water, otherwise it is lighter
than water and float.
w d
G =
70
3.4.7. Specific Gravity (G) can also be defined
as the ratio between the dry unit mass of soil
and the unit mass of water.
,
w
d
G

=
Specific gravity tells the
relative weight of soil to water.
If G
s
>1, soil is heavier than
water, otherwise it is lighter
than water.
w d
G =
Too many to remember?
Notation convention:
is used to represent density.
: is used to represent unit weight.

71
Weights =density * g

where g is gravitational acceleration
72
Try not to memorize the equations. Understand
the definitions.
Assume G

(2.6-2.8) when not given;
Do not mess the densities and unit weights



Soil grains are incompressible, and their mass and
volume remain the same at any circumstances.
= g
kg/m
3
N/m
3
m/s
2

73
A suggestion..
If you can remember one thing in phase
relations, other is just a piece of cake..
1
G
w

Se
w
Se
e
solid
air
water
74
1
e
solid
void
A tip: Assume the Volume of Solid to be 1, and others can be
easily worked out.
Hence, the void volume is V
v
=e, and the total volume is V
t
=1+e. Then it
can find the relationship between the porosity (n) and void ratio (e).
t
V
V
V
n=
e +
=
1 e
e
+
=
1 n
n
e

=
1
Calculate the saturation (S) from water
content (w) and void ratio (e)
Solid
air
water
1
G
w

Ser
w
Se
e
Phase Diagram
volume Weights
s
w
W
W
w=
w
w
G
Se

=
w
w
G
Se

=
G
Se
=
G
Se
w=
e
wG
S =
Therefore:
That is:
Calculate the bulk unit weight from
saturation (S) and void ratio
Solid
air
water
1
G
w

Ser
w
e
Phase Diagram
volumes
Weights
76
= =
t
t
b
V
W
W
e
Se G

+
+
=
1
e + 1 e
Se G
W W
+
+
=
1
Se
How to calculating the bulk density from
saturation (S)
solid
air
water
1
G
w

Se
w
e
Phase Diagram
Volume Mass
77
t
t
b
V
M
=
W
e
Se G

+
+
=
1
e + 1 e
Se G
W W
+
+
=
1
Se
Example 1
solid
air
water
1
G
w

Se
w
e
Phase Diagram
Volume
Mass
78
Se
A well compacted sandy clay had a bulk
density
b
=2000kgm
-3
and water content of
w=17%. Assuming specific gravity G=2.7 and
density of water
w
=1000kgm
-3
, calculate


1) void ratio;
2) degree of saturation,
3) dry density and
4) dry unit weight.
solid
air
water
1
G
w

Se
w
e
Phase Diagram
Volume Mass
79
G
Se
G
Se
w
w
w
= =

t
w s
b
V
M M +
=
Se
Gw Se=
e
Gw G
W W
b
+
+
=
1
b
W
w G
e

) 1 (
1
+
= +
1
1

+
=
b
W
w G
e
) ( ( )
1
2000
1000 17 . 0 1 7 . 2

+
=
579 . 0 1 579 . 1 = =
Void ratio e
e
Se G
W W
+
+
=
1




solid
air
water
1
G
w

Se
w
e
Phase Diagram
Volume Mass
80
Se
G
Se
w=
e
Gw
S =
579 . 0
17 . 0 7 . 2
=
79 . 0 =
Degree of Saturation S:
Dry density:
e
d
+
=
1
579 . 0 1
1000 7 . 2
+

=
3
kgm 9 . 1709

=
Dry unit weight:
g
d d
=
3
68 1
1000
81 9 9 1709

=

= kNm .
. .

t
s
d
V
M
=
e
G
w
d
+

=
1
Soil Classification & Soil
Physical Properties
End
81
Question 1
Find the void ratio and porosity of:
a sample of loose sand with dry density of 1600kgm
-3

a sample of dense sand with dry density of 2000kgm
-3


82
Solution
From the definition of dry density




Therefore,





83
soil
air
water
1
G
w

Ser
w
Se
e
Phase Diagram
volume
Weights
e
G
w
d
+

=
1
6865 . 0 1
1600
1000 7 . 2
=

= e
1

=
d
w
G
e
For the loose sand, the void ratio is
and the porosity n is
% 7 . 40
6865 . 0 1
6865 . 0
1
=
+
=
+
=
e
e
n
Solution
84
35 . 0 1
2000
1000 7 . 2
=

= e
For the dens sand, the void ratio is
and the porosity n is
% 9 . 25
35 . 0 1
35 . 0
1
=
+
=
+
=
e
e
n
Question 2
In a water content determination M
1
is the mass of the
tin and lid plus the soil sample, M
2
is the mass of the tin
and lid plus the sample after complete drying at 105
0
C,
and M
0
is the mass of the tin and lid. Find the moisture
content in each of the following cases :

(a) M
1
= 57.639gm, M
2
= 52.057gm, M
0
= 30.168gm

(b) M
1
= 59.060gm, M
2
= 51.636gm, M
0
= 33.215gm

85
Solution
86
SOLID of weight
water of weight
w =
From the definition
% 5 . 25
255 . 0 889 . 21 / 582 . 5
168 . 30 057 . 52
057 . 52 639 . 57
0 2
2 1
=
= =

=
w
M M
M M
w a)
% 3 . 40
403 . 0 421 . 18 / 424 . 7
215 . 33 639 . 51
639 . 51 060 . 59
0 2
2 1
=
= =

=
w
M M
M M
w b)
Question 3
The soils in the previous example are known to be
saturated. Calculate their respective void ratios,
dry densities and bulk densities.

87
Solution
88
, 689 . 0 7 . 2 255 . 0 = = e soil a)
088 . 1 403 . 0 * 7 . 2 = = e
soil b)
soil
air
water
1
G
w

Se
w
e
Phase Diagram
Volume
Se
G
Se
G
Se
w
w
w
=

=
From the definition
When soil is saturated, S=1
Gw e
G
e
w = = ,
Void ratio
Dry density
e
G
e
G
w
d
+
=
+

=
1
1000
1
Bulk density
e
e G
e
e G
w w
d
+
+
=
+
+
=
1
) ( 1000
1
, 1599
689 . 0 1
7 . 2 1000
3
kgm
d
=
+

=
, 2007
689 . 0 1
) 689 . 0 7 . 2 ( 1000
3
kgm
b
=
+
+
=
, 1293
088 . 1 1
7 . 2 1000
3
d
kgm =
+

=
, 1814
3
kgm
b
=
Question 4
Find the degree of saturation, the dry density and
the unit weight of :

a well compacted clay having a bulk density of
2000kgm
-3
and water content of 17%,

a dense gravel having a bulk density of 2244kgm
-3
and a water content of 4.5%.

89
Solution
579 . 0 1
2000
) 17 . 0 1 ( 7 . 2 1000
=
+
= e clay)
soil
air
water
1
G
w

Se
w
e
Phase Diagram
Volume
Se
From the definition of bulk density,
, Gw Se=
, 1710
579 . 0 1
1000 7 . 2
1
3
=
+

=
+

= kgm
e
G
w
d
e
Se G
e
Se G
w w
b
+
+
=
+
+
=
1
) ( 1000
1
From the definition of water content
G
Se
G
Se
w
w
w
=

=
e
w G
e
Gw G
b
+
+
=
+
+
=
1
) 1 ( 1000
1
) ( 1000
1
) 1 ( 1000

+
=
b
w G
e
The saturation is therefore:
793 . 0 579 . 0 / 17 . 0 7 . 2 / = = = e Gw S
The dry density:
The unit weight: , 77 . 16 81 . 9 1710
3
= = kNm
d
Dense gravel)
3 3
07 . 21 , 2148 , 257 . 0

= = = kNm kgm e
d d
Question 5
A cylindrical sample of clay 38mm in diameter
and 76mm long weighed 1.69N. After oven
drying its moisture content was found to be
25.5%. Determine its degree of saturation.

91
Solution
16.9
of the sample
b
voulme
=
soil
air
water
1
G
w

Se
w
e
Phase Diagram
Volume
Se
The bulk density of the soil is
The volume of the sample is
3 2
0000862 . 0 076 . 0 ) 2 / 038 . 0 ( m V = t =
3 3
16.9
19610 19.61
0.0000862

b
Nm kNm

= = =
From the definition:
Gw Se
G
Se
G
Se
w
e
Se G
w
w w w
b
= =

=
+
+
= ,
1

. Gw G
e
e
Gw G
b
w w w w
b
695 . 0 1
61 . 19
81 . 9 ) 255 . 0 1 ( 7 2
1 ,
1
=
+
=

+
=
+
+
=
From Se=Gw, S=0.255x2.7/0.695=0.991
Question 6
If there had been an error of +1mm in
measuring the length of the sample in Question
5 ,what would be the percentage error in the
degree of saturation?

93
Solution
16.9
of the sample
b
voulme
=
soil
air
water
1
G
w

Se
w
e
Phase Diagram
Volume
Se
The bulk density of the soil is
Sample length measured at 77mm, the volume is
3 2
0000873 . 0 077 . 0 ) 2 / 038 . 0 ( m V = t =
3 3
16.9
19610 19.36
0.0000862

b
Nm kNm

= = =

.
e 717 . 0 1
36 . 19
81 . 9 ) 255 . 0 1 ( 7 2
=
+
=
The saturation is S=0.255x2.7/0.717=0.960
The error in degree of saturation is
(0.991-0. 960)/0.991x100%=-3.1%