Fundamentals of Electric Power Systems

Energy Sources

The study of Electric Power Systems Is concerned with The Generation, Transmission, Distribution and Utilization of Electric Power. Generation involves the Conversion of energy From a non-Electrical Form such as Thermal, Hydraulic, Solar, or Wind Or Tidal energy Into electrical energy. It is therefore Appropriate to begin With a discussion of Energy.

Fundamentals of Electric Power Systems

Energy & Power

Importance of Electrical Energy

Work
If you push a box with a force of one newton for a distance of one meter, you have done exactly one joule of work.

Work ( when force is parallel to distance)

Force (N) Work (joules)

W=Fxd
Distance (m)

10.2 Work (force at angle to distance)

Force (N) Work (joules)

W = Fd cos (q)

Angle

Distance (m)

Energy & Power

Let a force F be applied to a mass so as to move the mass through a linear displacement d in the direction of F, then the work done by the force is W=Fd .. (1.1) If the displacement is not in the direction of F, then the work done is the product of the displacement and the component of the force along the displacement, that is, W=Fd.Cos .. (1.2) where is the angle F makes with d.

Work & Energy

Work is measured in joules (J). From 1.1, one joule is the work done by a force of one newton in moving a body through a distant of one meter in the direction of the force: 1j=1N.m Energy of a body is its capacity to do work. Energy has the same unit as work. For electrical energy, the Fundamental unit is the Watt-second. Where 1W.s=1J . (1.3)

K.Wh
So, Electrical Energy in Watt-sec (or Joules) = Voltage in volts x Current in amperes x Time in
seconds

Joules or Watt-sec is a very small unit of electricity for practical purposes In practice, & most commonly, electrical energy is measured in bigger units, viz watthour or kilowatt-hours (kWh):
1 watt-hour =1 watt x 1hr=1 wattx3600 sec= 3600 watt-sec

1kWh= 1kwx1hr= 1000 wattx3600sec= 36x10 5 wattsec= 3.6x10 6 J .. (1.4)

Kinetic Energy & Potential Energy

A body possesses KE by virtue of its motion, such that a object of mass M (kgs) moving with a velocity v (m/s) has
KE = Mv2 (in Joules) . (1.5)

A body possesses PE by virtue of its position. Gravitational PE results from an objects position in a gravitational field. A body of mass M (Kgs) at a height h (m) above earths surface has
PE=Mgh (in joules) . (1.6)
Where g is acceleration due to gravity (m/s)

Work done against gravity

Mass (g) Height object raised (m)

Work (joules)

W =mgh
Gravity (m/sec2)

Heat
Heat is a form of energy which produces the sensation of warmth. The unit of heat is calorie, British Thermal Unit (BTU), and Centigrate Heat Units (CHU) on various systems. Calorie: it is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1gm of water through 1C, 1Calorie= 1gm of water x 1C= 4.186 J (1.7)

Thermal Energy
Sometimes a bigger unit namely kilocalorie is used. A Kilocalorie is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1kg of water by 1C.
1 Kilocalorie= 1kg x 1C=1000gm x 1C= 1000 Calories

Yet another unit of thermal energy is Btu, related to Joule and Calorie as
1 Btu = 1 lb x 1F=1.055x103 J = 0.252x103 cal (1.8) 1 CHU= 1 lbx1C

Quad
Joule and calorie are relatively small units. Thermal and electric energy are expressed in Btu or kWh, or MWh. A still larger unit of energy is quad= ( Quadrillion British thermal units) 1 quad = 1015 Btu = 1.055x 1018 J Some authors define 1 quad as 1018 Btu

Power
Power is defined as the rate at which work is done. Power is the time rate of change of energy. Thus instantaneous power
p= dU/dt =dw/dt , where U is work & w is energy.

SI unit of power is the watt (W), and 1 watt is equal to 1 joule/s The power ratings (outputs) of electric motors are expressed in horsepower (hp), where
1 hp= 745.7 W

Major Energy Sources

Fossil fuels---coal, petrolium, and natural gas --are major sources of energy. Solar radiation is another major source of energy on earth, which may be obtained either directly as intercepted solar radiation or indirectly as Wind and hydropower. Other significant forms of energy are tidal energy, and nuclear energy. Turbine-type wind energy generators transform the KE of the wind into rotary shaft movement and in turn, into electrical energy

 Power extracted from wind is P =2.46x10-3 D2 u2 (in watts) where D is the

blade diameter in ft., and u , wind velocity in mph.

In Hydropower conversion the PE of a mass of water at a hydraulic head is converted into the KE of a hydraulic turbine that drives an electric generator. In general hydropower developed is P=[0.736/75]Qwh kW = p t g

 Tidal Energy is obtained by closing off a bay with a dam, allowing it to fill during periods of high tide, and recovering the energy as it empties during periods of low tide. For a max. tidal Head (m), the avg tidal power obtained per unit area of tidal bay is given by Pav= 0.219H2 in MW /Sq.km

Operational Factors
Demand Factor=[Max.Demand]/connected Load Load Factor=Avg. Demand/Max.Demand Load Factor can be defined for a period such as daily, monthly or annual. Diversity Factor=Sum of individual consumers max. Demand/Maximum Demand on Station Plant Capacity Factor=Avg Demand/Installed Cap. Plant use factor= actual energy produced/[Plant CapacityxHours the plant has been in operation].

TARIFFs

INTRODUCTION
Electrical energy is most useful form of energy because it can be most conveniently transformed into other forms of energy like heat light, mechanical energy that we require in our day to day life. But electricity is not readily available and is required to be produced (generated) in a factory called power station. Like any other manufacturing process, the production (generation) of electricity also need some cost to be incurred - Plants and Equipment, Inputs (water, fuel etc.), Ash smoke disposal systems, Personnel Cost of Transmission and Distribution to the large number of consumers of various categories (viz. domestic, commercial, industrial, agricultural etc.)

All these costs when added together constitutes the total cost of electricity which in the consumers have to share according to the quantum of electricity consumed taking into account the nature and time of use of electricity by each category of consumers.
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Tariffs (Contd.)
The tariff for the consumer is fixed based on
Fixed costs incurred during generation, transmission and distribution incldg cost of plant, bldg, depreciation , salaries etc. and does not depend upon no of units generated. Operational costs ( also called variable costs or running units) and depends on the units generated. Commonly use Tariffs are:

i. Flat Rate Tariff ii. Block Rate Tariff iii. Two part Tariff