Review: Levels of sentence structure

*Source: Crystal, David: The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language. 1997

Multiple Sentences
Simple sentences: one clause

Compound sentences:

clauses linked by coordination

clauses linked by subordination

Complex sentences:

Is the linking of two or more elements (words, phrases or clauses) at the same syntactic level.

same syntactic level

Examples of coordinaton
-He crept towards his victim slowly and stealthily.

-He tried, he failed.

-You can eat the leftovers, or make yourself a sandwich or just be hungry until I cook.

 Syndetic coordination: When the units are linked by a coordinator.

Ex.: He crept towards his victim slowly and stealthily. Asyndetic coordination: When the coordinators are not presented, but could be inserted. Ex.: He tried, he failed. (He tried but/and he failed.) Polysyndetic coordination: when the coordinator is repeated between each pair or unit. Ex.: You can eat the leftovers, or make yourself a sandwich or just be hungry until I cook.

Coordinators: Semantic linking function

Most clear conjunctions and, or, but
yet, so, for, nor Correlatives both and/ either or/ neither nor

 And, or and but are restricted to initial position in the second clause. This is not true for most conjuncts.

e.g.

Paul knows history, and Julia knows geography. *Paul knows history, Julia and knows geography. Paul brings the drinks; Julia, moreover, knows geography.

Clauses beginning with and, or and but are sequentially fixed in relation to previous clauses. If we change the order, we change the reationship between the clauses or we produce unnacceptable changes
e.g.
They are living in England or they are spending a vacation there. *Or they are spending a vacation there, they are living in England.

 The coordinators and, or and but and the subordinators for and so are not preceded by another conjuction.
e.g. *He tried hard, and but he failed.
He tried hard, and yet he failed.

Coordinators and and or can link subordinate clauses. e.g.

He asked to be transferred, because he was unhappy and he saw no prospect of promotion.

 The coordinators and, and or can link more than two clauses: Multiple Coordination. All but the final instance of these two conjunctions can be omitted. e.g. Te battery may be disconnected, (or) the connections may be loose, or the bulb may be faulty. Semantically speaking, but can only link two units at the same level.

 Coordinators and, or and but can link smaller constituens a) I may see you tomorrow or may phone you late in the day. (coordination of predicates) b) The weather is cold and cloudy. (adjectives as subject complements)

Indicates relation between the contens of the linked clauses Chronological sequence between clauses e.g. I locked the door and (then) I got in the car.

Consequence or result e.g. She saw the accident and (therefore) called an ambulance. Contrast e.g. Sarah is outgoing and her sister is shy.
Concessive force of the first clause e.g. He tried really hard and (yet) he failed.

 The first clause is a condition. e.g. Promise me that youll keep the secret and (then) Ill tell you what happened.

The second clause makes a point similar to the first. e.g. A trade agreement should not be a problem, and (similarly) a cultural exchange could be easily arranged.
The second clause is an addition to the first. e.g. She took a handbag and (also) a hat.

The second clause adds a comment of explanation of the first. e.g. He told me he was sorry and that means nothing to me.

 Tipically Exclusive e.g. You can come in or you can wait outside. Sometimes Inclusive e.g. You can boil an egg, (or) you can make some sandwiches, or you can do both. Restatement or corrective e.g. They are fixing the problem, or (at least) theyre trying to. Negative condition e.g. Turn on the lights or we wont find anything.

Expresses Contrast

Unnexpected content of the second clause. e.g. He seems to have no money but he bought a house. Positive terms of the second clause. e.g. I am not objecting to his morals, but (rather) to his manners.

 Either or: emphasizes the exclusive meaning of or. It can link complete clauses or lesser constituents. e.g. -Either the room is too small or the library is too large. -You may either stand up or sit down. -Either Cecilia or Cintya will cook today.

Both and: a) emphasizes the additive meaning of and. b) singles out the segregatory meaning of and. e.g. a) Both Claudia and Laura washed the dishes. b) Both Claudia and Laura got married. (not to each other)

 Neither nor: emphasizes that the negation applies to both units. Its the negative counterpart of bothand.

e.g. Neither Claudia nor Laura washed the dishes.

Bothand and nither nor cannot link complete sentences, like either or. Not (only) but: may be correlative. e.g. He not only broke violently into the clasroom, but also hit a student.

Exercise 1: Types of coordination.

a. State if the following sentences have a syndetic, asyndetic or polysyndetic coordination. b. Underline and identify what units are being coordinated.

1) I fulfilled almost all the teachers tasks but I couldnt get a higher mark than last before. Syndetic (Clause coordination) 2) I have got semantics and pragmatics and sociolinguistics and syntax! Polysyndetic (nouns as DO coordination) 1) Yummy! This is sweet, creamy, soft. Asyndetic (adjectives as CS coordination) 2) The family will fight against him in court or will try by other means. Syndetic (predicates coordination)

3) Id like ham, eggs and fried bread for breakfast. Syndetic(nouns as DO coordination)

Exercise 2: Syntactic features of coordinators. -Spot the mistake and explain why the sentence or statements are wrong. 1) She felt very tired, he but didnt even notice.
And, or and but are restricted to initial position in the second clause

1) Bill resorted to force and but he couldnt open the door.

The coordinators and, or and but and the subordinators for and so are not preceded by another conjuction.

1) They havent passed the exam, but they are happy anyway. is the same as But they are happy anyway, they havent passed the exam.It is not the same.
Clauses beginning with and, or and but are sequentially fixed in relation to previous clauses. If we change the order, we change the reationship between the clauses or we produce unnacceptable sentences.

Exercise 3: Semantic implication of And, But and OR. Choose the correct answer.
1) Carol went to the cinema and her boyfriend went out with his friends. a. consequence or result. b. Contrast. c. concessive force of the first clause. 2) I told her awful things and that is why she havent come to the party. a. The first sentence is a condition. b. The second clause is an addition to the first. c. the second clause is an explanation to the first. 3) I am not angry with him, but with his mother. a. Unexpected content of the second clause. b. Consequence or result. c. Positive term of the second clause. 4) Study hard or youll be sorry in summer. a. Negative condition. b. Exclusive use of or. c. Inclusive use of or.