Artificial Intelligence

BE IT Urmila Kalshetti

Objectives
To introduce the basic principles and applications of Artificial Intelligence To Understand the basic areas of artificial intelligence such as problem solving, knowledge representation, reasoning, planning, perception, vision and learning To develop the ability to design and implement key components of intelligent agents and expert systems of moderate complexity To study different Heuristic Search Techniques and their applications

References
Text Books: 1. Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach by Peter and Norvig ISBN-0-13-103805-2, 2. Artificial Intelligence by Elaine Rich, Kevin Knight and Nair ISBN978-0-07-008770-5, TMH Reference Books: 1. George F. Luger , Artificial Intelligence: Structures and Strategies for Complex Problem Solving, Pearson, ISBN-10: 0321545893 2. N.P. Padhy, Artificial Intelligence And Intelligent Systems, Oxford University Publishers, ISBN 9780195671544 3. Ivan Bratko, PROLOG : Programming for Artificial Intelligence, Pearson Education, 3 Edition, ISBN10: 0-201-40375-7 4. Saroj Kaushik, Artificial Intelligence, Cengage Learning, , ISBN-13: 9788131510995

Why study AI?

AI helps
computer scientists and engineers build more useful and user-friendly computers, psychologists, linguists, and philosophers understand the principles that constitute what we call intelligence.

AI is an interdisciplinary field of study. Many ideas and techniques now standard in CS (symbolic computation, time sharing, objects, declarative programming, . . . ) were pioneered by AI-related research.

AI is among us!
Recent applications using AI techniques: Sony Aibo
Entertainment robot with pet-like behaviour

Dragon NaturallySpeaking

(Dictation and voice recognition software) (http://www.dragonsys.com) You talk, it types. to use our voice to create documents, write papers, send email, and search the Web

TOPIO, a humanoid robot, played ping pong at Tokyo International Robot Exhibition (IREX) 2009.

KIROBO Robot project

Japan's Kirobo spacebot performs on video There are already quite a few robots on the International Space Station (namely, Robonaut and a bunch of SPHEREs), but later this year, a little humanoid from Japan will be joining the team:

AI is among us!
More applications using AI techniques:
Honda Humanoid Robot
Demo walking robot

Deep Blue(now retired) a new version (Watson)

Over three nights, it took on two of the all-time most successful human players of the game and beat them in front of millions of television viewers in FEB, 2011. (http://researchweb.watson.ibm.com/deepblue)

Mars Pathfinder (1997)

Autonomous land vehicle sent to Mars

(http://mars.jpl.nasa.gov/MPF) NASA's Juno Spacecraft Launches to Jupiter Juno's detailed study of the largest planet in our solar system will help reveal Jupiter's origin and evolution. Marvel
Real-time expert system for monitoring data sent by Voyager spacecraft.

ChatterBot Eliza
She is programmed to behave as a Rogerian psychotherapist, and is an interesting example of the limitations of early artificial intelligence programs http://nlp-addiction.com/eliza/

What is AI?
A scientific and engineering discipline devoted to:
Understanding principles that make intelligent behavior possible in natural or artificial systems; Developing methods for the design and implementation of useful, intelligent artifacts

Artificial Intelligence is concerned with the design of intelligence in an artificial device.

What is AI?
What is intelligence? Is it that which characterize humans? Or is there an absolute standard of judgement? Accordingly there are two possibilities:

A system with intelligence is expected to behave as intelligently as a human A system with intelligence is expected to behave in the best possible manner

Secondly what type of behavior are we talking about?

Are we looking at the thought process or reasoning ability of the system? Or are we only interested in the final manifestations of the system in terms of its actions?

What is AI?
different interpretations have been used by different researchers
AI is about designing systems that are as intelligent as humans.
understand human thought and an effort to build machines that emulate the human thought process

The concept of the Turing Test

Turing Test

AI is pretty hard stuff!

I went to the grocery store, I saw the milk on the shelf and I bought it. What did I buy? The milk? The shelf? The store? An awful lot of knowledge of the world is needed to answer simple questions like this one.

Typical AI problems
Recognizing people, objects. Communicating (through natural language). Navigating around obstacles on the streets Expert tasks include:
Medical diagnosis. Mathematical problem solving Playing games like chess

What is AI?
Views of AI fall into four categories: Thinking humanly Thinking rationally Acting humanly Acting rationally The textbook advocates "acting rationally" Rationally means sensibly, logically.

Acting humanly: Turing Test

Turing (1950) "Computing machinery and intelligence": "Can machines think?" "Can machines behave intelligently?" Operational test for intelligent behavior: the Imitation Game

Predicted that by 2000, a machine might have a 30% chance of fooling a lay person for 5 minutes Anticipated all major arguments against AI in following 50 years Suggested major components of AI: knowledge, reasoning, language understanding, learning

Thinking humanly: cognitive modeling

1960s "cognitive revolution": information-processing psychology Getting inside the actual working of human minds
Introspection Pshychological experiments

-- How to validate? Requires

1) Predicting and testing behavior of human subjects (topdown) or 2) Direct identification from neurological data (bottomup)

Both approaches (roughly, Cognitive Science and Cognitive Neuroscience) are now distinct from AI

Thinking rationally: "laws of thought"

Aristotle: what are correct arguments/thought processes? (right thinking)

Socrates is a man. All men are mortal Therefore Socrates is mortal.

Several Greek schools developed various forms of logic: notation and rules of derivation for thoughts.

Direct line through mathematics and philosophy to modern AI

Challenges:
1. 2. Stating informal knowledge in formal in formal terms Solving a problem in principle and doing so in practice

Acting rationally: rational agent

Rational behavior: doing the right thing The right thing: that which is expected to maximize goal achievement, given the available information Doesn't necessarily involve thinking e.g., blinking reflex but thinking should be in the service of rational action Laws of thought- emphasis is on correct inference Correct inference is not all of rationality because there are often situations where there is no provably correct thing to do, yet something must still be done.

AI prehistory
Philosophy Logic, methods of reasoning, mind as physical system foundations of learning, language, rationality Mathematics Formal representation and proof algorithms, computation, (un)decidability, (in)tractability, probability Economics utility, decision theory Neuroscience physical substrate for mental activity Psychology phenomena of perception and motor control, experimental techniques Computer building fast computers engineering Control theory design systems that maximize an objective function over time Linguistics knowledge representation, grammar

Abridged history of AI
1943 1950 1956 195269 1950s McCulloch & Pitts: Boolean circuit model of brain Turing's "Computing Machinery and Intelligence" Dartmouth meeting: "Artificial Intelligence" adopted Look, Ma, no hands! Early AI programs, including Samuel's checkers program, Newell & Simon's Logic Theorist, Gelernter's Geometry Engine Robinson's complete algorithm for logical reasoning AI discovers computational complexity Neural network research almost disappears Early development of knowledge-based systems AI becomes an industry Neural networks return to popularity AI becomes a science The emergence of intelligent agents

1965 196673 196979 1980-1986-1987-1995--

Task Domains of AI
Routine Tasks
Perception Natural language
Understanding, generation, translation

Commonsense reasoning Robot control

Formal Tasks
Games
Chess, Backgammon, Checkers

Mathematics
Geometry, logic, integral calculus

Expert Tasks
Engineering
Designing, fault finding, manufacturing planning

Scientific analysis Financial analysis Medical Analysis

Agents
An agent is anything that can be viewed as perceiving its environment through sensors and acting upon that environment through actuators Human agent: eyes, ears, and other organs for sensors; hands, legs, mouth, and other body parts for actuators

Robotic agent: cameras and infrared range finders for sensors; various motors for actuators

Examples of agents
Humans can be looked upon as agents. They have eyes, ears, skin, taste buds, etc. for sensors; and hands, fingers, legs, mouth for effectors . Robots are agents. Robots may have camera, sonar, infrared, bumper, etc. for sensors. They can have grippers, wheels, lights, speakers, etc. for actuators.

Agents and environments

The agent function maps from percept histories to actions:

[f: P* A] The agent program runs on the physical architecture to produce f agent = architecture + program

Vacuum-cleaner world

Percepts: location and contents, e.g., [A,Dirty] Actions: Left, Right, Suck, NoOp

A vacuum-cleaner agent
Percept Sequence
The complete history of everything the agent has ever perceived

Agent function
Maps any given percept sequence to an action Abstract mathematical description Concrete implementation running on the agent architecture

Agent program

Vacuum-cleaner world
Simple agent function
Percept Sequence [A, clean] [A, Dirty] [B, clean] [B, Dirty] [A, clean], [A, clean] [A, clean], [A, Dirty] . . Action Right Suck Left Suck Right Suck

[A, clean], [A, clean], [A, clean]

[A, clean], [A, clean], [A, Dirty]

Right
Suck

What is the right way to fill out the table? What makes an agent good or bad, intelligent or stupid?

Rational agents
An agent should strive to "do the right thing", based on what it can perceive and the actions it can perform. The right action is the one that will cause the agent to be most successful. Performance measure: An objective criterion for success of an agent's behavior E.g., performance measure of a vacuum-cleaner agent could be amount of dirt cleaned up, amount of time taken, amount of electricity consumed, amount of noise generated, etc.

Rational agents
Rational Agent: For each possible percept sequence, a rational agent should select an action that is expected to maximize its performance measure, given the evidence provided by the percept sequence and whatever built-in knowledge the agent has.

Rational agents
Rationality is distinct from omniscience (allknowing with infinite knowledge) Agents can perform actions in order to modify future percepts so as to obtain useful information (information gathering, exploration) An agent is autonomous if its behavior is determined by its own experience (with ability to learn and adapt)

PEAS
PEAS: Performance measure, Environment, Actuators, Sensors Consider, e.g., the task of designing an automated taxi driver:
Performance measure Environment Actuators Sensors

PEAS
Consider, e.g., the task of designing an automated taxi driver:
Performance measure: Safe, fast, legal, comfortable trip, maximize profits Environment: Roads, other traffic, pedestrians, customers Actuators: Steering wheel, accelerator, brake, signal, horn Sensors: Cameras, sonar, speedometer, GPS, odometer, engine sensors, keyboard

PEAS
Agent: Medical diagnosis system Performance measure: Healthy patient, minimize costs, lawsuits Environment: Patient, hospital, staff Actuators: Screen display (questions, tests, diagnoses, treatments, referrals) Sensors: Keyboard (entry of symptoms, findings, patient's answers)

PEAS
Agent: Part-picking robot Performance measure: Percentage of parts in correct bins Environment: Conveyor belt with parts, bins Actuators: Jointed arm and hand Sensors: Camera, joint angle sensors

PEAS
Agent: Interactive English tutor Performance measure: Maximize student's score on test Environment: Set of students Actuators: Screen display (exercises, suggestions, corrections) Sensors: Keyboard

Software agents/Softbots
Softbot designed to fly a flight simulator for a large commercial airplane. Softbot designed to scan internet news sources and show the interesting items to its customers
It will need NLP ability It will need to learn what each customer is interested in It will need change its plan dyanmically

soft robots based on natural forms, including squid and starfish. Whitesides envisions using the pneumatically powered robots to aid disaster recovery efforts by squeezing into the rubble left by an earthquake to locate survivors, or as a way to free up a surgeons hands in the operating room. http://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/2011/12/softbots/

Environment types
Fully observable (vs. partially observable): An agent's sensors give it access to the complete state of the environment at each point in time. Partially observable- if noisy and inaccurate sensors Deterministic (vs. stochastic): The next state of the environment is completely determined by the current state and the action executed by the agent. (If the environment is deterministic except for the actions of other agents, then the environment is strategic) Episodic (vs. sequential): The agent's experience is divided into atomic "episodes" (each episode consists of the agent perceiving and then performing a single action), and the choice of action in each episode depends only on the episode itself.

Environment types
Static (vs. dynamic): The environment is unchanged while an agent is deliberating. (The environment is semidynamic if the environment itself does not change with the passage of time but the agent's performance score does) Discrete (vs. continuous): A limited number of distinct, clearly defined percepts and actions. Single agent (vs. multiagent): An agent operating by itself in an environment.

Environment types
Fully observable Deterministic Episodic Static Discrete Single agent Chess with a clock Yes Strategic No Semi Yes No Chess without a clock Yes Strategic No Yes Yes No Taxi driving No No No No No No

The environment type largely determines the agent design The real world is (of course) partially observable, stochastic, sequential, dynamic, continuous, multi-agent

Agent types
Four basic types in order of increasing generality:
Simple reflex agents Model-based reflex agents Goal-based agents Utility-based agents

Simple reflex agents

Simple reflex agents

\input{algorithms/d-agent-algorithm}

Model-based reflex agents

Model-based reflex agents

\input{algorithms/d+-agent-algorithm}

Goal-based agents

Utility-based agents

Learning agents

Chatterbot Eliza