Professional Documents
Culture Documents
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Course description
The course is intended to give health officer students working knowledge of
primarily gross anatomy, emphasizing the major systems that will be important in
health centre activity including surgical and Obstetrics and Gynecology
emergencies.
Course objective
At the end of the course students will be able to:
List anatomical structures
Show their ability in surgery
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Anatomy Introduction
Definition
It deals with the structure of human body
Anatomy means to cut up or dissect human cadavers
is the study of internal and external structures and the physical relationships
among body parts
Divisions of anatomy
microscopic anatomy
deals with structures that cannot be seen without magnification.
includes cytology and histology.
Cytology is the analysis of the internal structure of individual cells
Histology involves the examination of tissue
Gross anatomy or macroscopic anatomy
involves the examination of relatively large structures and features
usually visible with the unaided eye.
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Surface anatomy
Is the study of general form and superficial markings.
Regional anatomy
focuses on the anatomical organization of specific areas of the
body
such as the head, neck, or trunk.
Systemic anatomy
is the study of the structure of organ systems
such as the skeletal system or the muscular system.
Developmental anatomy
study of the complete devm’t of an individual from fertilization of
an egg to death
Embryology
The study early developmental processes during the first 2
months
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Levels of organization
Refers to the component parts of the human body
Helps to understand how the human body functions as a coordinated entity
From the smallest to largest there are six levels of organization
1.Chemicl level
Very basic level
Includes atoms and molecules
Atoms are the smallest stable units of matter
Molecules two or more atoms joined togather
2.Cellular level
Include cells formed from combination of molecules
cells are the smallest unit of structure capable of carrying out all life processes.
Although cells types differ in their structure and function, they have many
characteristics in common.
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3.Tissue level
Is Collection of cells with similar structure and function plus
the extracellular substance located between them.
There are four basic types of tissues that make up the body
Nervous tissue
Connective tissue
Epithelial tissue
muscle tissue
4.Organ level
are composed of two or more tissue types
together perform one or more common functions.
The skin, stomach, eye, and heart are examples of organs.
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5.Organ system
is a group of organs classified as a unit
have a common function or set of functions.
Include the following the ff 11 systems
• Support, motion, and shape
• Integumentary
composed by skin, hair, nails, and sweat glands
protect, regulates temperature, prevent water loss, and
produces vitamin D precursors.
• Skeletal
composed by bones, associated cartilage, and joints,protects
support, and allows body movement
produces blood cells and stores minerals.
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1. Muscular
composed by muscles attached to the skeleton
produces body movement, maintains posture, and
produces body heat.
A. Circulatory systems and vascular integration
1. Cardiovascular
composed by heart, blood vessels, and blood
transport nutrients, waste products, gases, and hormones
plays a role in the immune response and
the regulation of the body temperature.
2. Lymphatic
composed by lymph vessels, lymph nodes, and other lymph
organs
removes foreign substances from the blood and lymph,
combats diseases, maintains tissues fluid balance, and absorbs
fats.
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• Neural and hormonal integration
• Nervous
composed by brain, spinal cord, nerves and sensory receptors
is a major regulatory system.
It detects sensation, controls movements
control physiological and intellectual functions.
• Endocrine
composed by endocrine glands such as the
pituitary,
thyroid, and
adrenal
participates in the regulations of the metabolism, reproduction,
and many other functions.
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• Body maintenance
• Respiratory
composed by lungs and respiratory passages
exchanges gases between the blood and the air and
regulates blood pH.
• Digestive
Compose by
mouth,
esophagus,
stomach,
intestines,and
accessory structures
performs the
mechanical and chemical processes of digestion,
absorption of nutrients, and
elimination of wastes. 10
1. Urinary
composed by
kidneys
urinary bladder, and
ducts that carry urine
removes waste products from the circulatory system
regulates blood pH, ion balance, and water balance.
• Reproductive,
1. composed by
gonads
accessory structures, and
genitals of males and females
perform the
processes of reproduction and
controls sexual functions and behaviors.
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6.Organisimal level
An organism or any individual level
All the organ systems of the body work together to maintain life and
health.
This brings us to the highest level of organization, that of the
organism--in this case, a human being.
Approaches to study
1.Anatomical Positions ( fig. 1)
In anatomy, description of any region or part of the human body
assume that the body is in a specific position.
In the anatomical position, the subject:
Stands erect (up right position)
Facing the observer
With feet flat on the floor
Arms placed at the sides and
The palms turned for ward.
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Figure I.1. Anatomical position and regions of body. 13
1. Body Regions
They designate particular area of the body
the principal regions are
Head consist of skull &face
Neck
Trunk consist of chest abdomen & pelvis
Upper limb
Lower limb
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• Directional Terms(f.g 1.2)
To locate various body structures in relation to one another,
anatomists use certain directional terms to avoid the use of
unnecessary words.
There are many pairs of directional terms with opposite meanings.
Superior- inferior
Anterior – posterior
Medial- lateral
Intermediate (b/n the two)
Ipsilateral – contra lateral
Proximal- Distal
Superficial- deep
Parietal- Visceral
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Fig. 1.2 Commonly Used Terms of Relationship and Comparison 18
Commonly Used Terms of Relationship and Comparison
Adduction
means moving toward the median plane of the body in the frontal (coronal) plane.
When referring to the digits (fingers and toes), abduction means spreading them, and
adduction means drawing them together.
Rotation
means moving a part of the body around its long axis.
Medial rotation turns the anterior surface medially, and
lateral rotation turns this surface laterally.
Circumduction
is the circular movement of the limbs, or parts of them, combining in sequence the
movements of flexion, extension, abduction, and adduction.
Pronation
is a medial rotation of the forearm and hand so that the palm faces posteriorly.
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Supination
is a lateral rotation of the forearm and hand so that the palm faces anteriorly, as in
the anatomical position.
Eversion
means turning the sole of foot outward.
Inversion
means turning the sole of foot inward.
Protrusion (protraction)
means to move the jaw anteriorly.
Retrusion (retraction)
means to move the jaw posteriorly.
Elevation
raises or moves a part superiorly.
Depression
lowers or moves a part inferiorly.
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1. Planes And Sections(fig.1.3)
In order to visualize and study the structural arrangements of
variousorgans, the body may be sectioned and diagramed according
to planes of reference
Planes are imaginary flat surfaces that pass through the body parts
There are three fundamental plane
1. Sagittal - divides the body into right and left parts
1. Midsagittal – divides body into equal right and left halves
2. Parasagittal - divides body into unequal right and left
2. Frontal (Coronal)
divides the body into front and back (ventral and dorsal)
sections
3. Horizontal (Cross, Transverse)
divides the body into superior and inferior parts
4. Oblique plane
passes through the body or organ at an angle between the
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Figure I.3. Planes of body
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1. Body Cavities
They are confined spaces within the body that contain internal organs.
The cavities help to protect, separate, and support the organs.
The various body cavities may be separated from each other by
structures such as muscles, bones, or ligaments.
The two principal body cavities are:
a) Dorsal body Cavity
is located near the dorsal (back) surface of the body & include
Cranial cavity formed by cranial bones & contains the brain
Vertebral (spinal) canal formed by vertebral column bone &
contain spinal cord
b) Ventral body cavity
located on the front aspect of the body.
A thin slippery tissue called a serous membrane lines the wall
of the ventral cavity.
Include the following
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Thoracic cavity(chest cavity)
Formed by the ribs,the muscles of the chest, the sternum,&
thoracic portion of vertebral column
Within the thoracic cavity are
Two pleural cavities one around each lung
Pericardial cavity a fliud filled space that surrounds the heart
Mediastinum:
region between lungs from breastbone to back bone
containing all structure with in the chest except the lungs.
Abdomino- pelvic cavity.
It is separated from the thoracic cavity by muscular Structure
called diaphragm.
Extends from diaphram to the groin region
Abdominal cavity
stomach, spleen, liver, gallbladder, pancreas, small
intestine
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Pelvic cavity:
contains bladder and reproductive organs.
Other Body Cavities
a. oral cavity (mouth)
b. nasal cavity (sinuses for air passage)
c. orbital cavities (eyes)
d. middle ear cavities (in temporal bone)
e. synovial cavities (freely moveable joints)
Divisions of Abdominopelvic Cavity
A. Quadrants (from the umbilicus - belly button)
1. right upper quadrant (RUQ)
2. left upper quadrant (LUQ)
3. right lower quadrant (RLQ)
4. left lower quadrant (LLQ)
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B. Regions (nine regions around umbilicus)
Right Hypochondriac Epigastric Left
Hypochondriac
Right Lumbar Umbilical Left Lumbar
Right Iliac Hypogastric Left Iliac
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Cells
Two basic types of cells
Prokaryotic- bacteria
Larger than eukaryotic cells
Lacks a nucleus but has a nucleiod (a region of coiled DNA)
DNA is in direct contact with rest of cells contents
Cell wall- a rigid complex structure that protects the cell and helps to maintain its shape
Some have a sticky outer coat called a capsule that further protects the cell and helps
to adhere the cell to surfaces
Some have projections
Pili- short projections that aid in adhesion
Flagella- used to propel through the liquid environment
Eukaryotic
All other forms of life
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Stracture of a cell
Three parts
Plasma (cell) membrane
the limiting membrane that separates the outer from the internal cell environment
Cytoplasm
all the cellular contents between the plasma membrane and the nucleus
Cytosol : the thick semifluid portion of the cytoplasm
Organelles
the highly organized structures in the cytoplasm that are specialized for particular
functions.
Organelles
Membranous organelles- surrounded by one or two layers of unit membrane
• Nucleus
• Mitochondria
• Lysosomes
• Peroxisomes
• Endoplasmic reticulum
• Golgi complex 37
Non membranous organelles- not membrane bound
•Ribosome
•Centrosome
•Centrioles
•Basal bodies
Provides separate chemical environments for the various specialized reactions of the cell
Nucleus
• largest structure in the cell
• called the control center because it contains the genetic material
chromatin- loosely dispersed DNA associated with protein
chromosomes- condensed DNA strands
• nuclear contents are bound by a membranous sac called a nuclear envelope (double
layered membrane)
• studded with ribosomes- place of protein synthesis
• nuclear pores- provide communication with cytoplasm
• continuous with endoplasmic reticulum
• contains nucleolus- unenclosed area composed of protein, DNA, where ribosomes are
manufactured 38
Endoplasmic Reticulum
• a system of membranous flattened sacs (cisterns) dispersed throughout the cytoplasm
• Two types- Rough and smooth
• Rough endoplasmic reticulum
studded with ribosomes on the outer surface
makes more membrane and processes secretory proteins manufactured by the
ribosomes
membrane continuous with the nuclear envelope
• Smooth endoplasmic reticulum
network of interconnected tubes void of ribosomes
continuous with rough ER
site of fatty acid, phospholipid, and steroid synthesis
in certain cells the enzymes within the smooth ER inactivates or detoxifies various
chemicals (i.e., alcohol, pesticides, carcinogens)
Ribosome
• Small granules composed of ribosomal RNA and protein
• sites of protein synthesis
• are scattered throughout the cytoplasm and attached to ER 39
Golgi Complex
• a system of stacked flattened sacs (cisterns) with expanded areas at their ends
• has golgi vesicles that cluster along the expanded edges of the cisterns
• is the “shipping and receiving” dock for newly synthesized lipids and proteins
• packages them into transport (secretory) vesicles that release the products to
the external of the cell
Lysosomes
• membrane enclosed sacs formed the golgi complex that contains powerful
digestive enzymes
• used to foreign substances and organisms
• digest old organelles (autophagy) for recycling
• capable of digesting the cell (autolysis)
• enzymes can also be used external to the cell in injury repair
Peroxisomes
• Resemble lysosomes but contain different enzymes
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• kill bacteria, neutralize free radicals, breaks down fatty acids, and detoxify alcohol and
other drugs.
• In the course of detoxification and the distruction of microorgansims , they produce
hydrogen peroxide (H2O2)
• Contain catalase, an enzyme that breaks down hydrogen peroxide which is dangerous to
the cell
Mitochondria
• The powerhouse of the cell because of it function in energy production
• Consist of two membranes
outer membrane- smooth
inner membrane- arranged in folds (cristae) where ATP is generated
• Center core called matrix
• Found throughout the cytoplasm of all cells, especially in cells that expend a lot of energy
(i.e. muscle, liver..etc.)
Cytoskeleton
• A supportive meshwork of fine fibers that provide structural support for the cell
• three main types of fibers
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1. microfilaments
helical rodlike globular protein (actin) structures involved in contraction in muscle cells
and provide support, shape, and assist in locomotion in nonmuscular cells
2. intermediate filaments
fibrous ropelike protein structures that serve as reinforcing rods for bearing tension
and for anchoring certain organelles
3. Microtubules
straight hollow tubes composed of globular proteins called tubulins
provide anchorage of organelles and act as tracks along which organelles can move
within the cytoplasm
guide the movement of chromosomes in cell division
the structural basis for flagella and cilia
Cilia and Flagella
• Both consist of microtubules surrounded by cytosol and enclosed by plasma membrane
• Cilia- short numerous appendages used for locomotion and the movement of substances along the
surface of the cell
• Flagella- longer, generally less numerous appendages used for locomotion (sperm)
• These motile appendages are constructed by basal bodies (kinetostomes), which also function as
centrioles. 42
• The basal body is located at the base of each filament, anchoring it to the cell and
controlling its movement.
• Cilia and flagella have the same structure. The only difference is that the flagella are
longer.
Centrosome and Centrioles
• Centrosome
• a dense area of cytoplasm near the nucleus
• is involved in mitosis
• Centrioles
• a pair of structures composed of microtubules arranged in right angles that are
located in the centrosomes.
• Has an unknown function in mitosis
• involved in the formation of flagella and cilia
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Plasma Membrane
Composed of two parallel rows of phospholipids called a phospholipid bilayer.
Contains two types of membrane proteins
integral- penetrate through the membrane
form channels that have pores through which certain substances move in and out of
the cell.
transporters (carriers) that move substances from one side of the membrane to the
other.
Receptors (recognition sites) which identify and attach various molecules (i.e.
hormones, antibodies.. etc.).
cell identity markers-glycoproteins and glycolipids that enable the cell to recognize
self and foreign.
peripheral - loosely attached to the exterior or interior surface of the membrane
Functions of the Plasma Membrane
Shape and protection
Communication- occurs via receptors and second messengers
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Enzymes in the membrane break down signaling molecules to halt action
Signal Transduction Pathway (Second Messenger)
Maintains the electrochemical Gradient
Selective permeability- regulation of the entry and exit of materials
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