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Human Factors and Motivation

Definition of leading
Leading is the process of influencing people so that they will contribute to organizational and group goals.

Human Factors in Managing


Multiplicity of Roles No average Person The importance of Personal Dignity Consideration of the whole Person

Multiplicity of roles
Individuals are much more than a productive factor in managements plans. They are members of social systems of many organizations: Consumers of goods and services who vitally influence the demand. They are members of families, schools, churches, trade associations, and political parties. In these different roles they establish laws that govern managers, ethics that guide behavior, and a tradition of human dignity that is a major characteristic of our society. Managers and the people they lead are interacting members of a broad social system

No Average Person
People act in different roles, but they are also different themselves. There is no average person Yet in organized enterprises, the assumption is often made that there is. Firms develop rules, procedures, work schedules, safety standards, and position descriptions- all with the implicit assumption that people are essentially alike.

This assumption is necessary to a great extent in organized efforts, but it is equally important to acknowledge that individuals are unique- they have different needs, different ambitions, different attitudes, different desires for responsibility, different levels of knowledge and skills, and different potentials.

The Importance of Personal Dignity


The concept of individual dignity means that people must be treated with respect, no matter what their position is in the organization.

Consideration of the Whole Person


We can not talk about the nature of people unless we consider the whole person, not just separate and distinct characteristics such as knowledge, attitude, skills, or personality traits. The human being is a total person influenced by external factors. People cannot divest themselves of the impact of these forces when they come to work. Managers must recognize these facts and be prepared to deal with them.

Motivation
Human motives are based on needs, whether consciously or subconsciously felt. Some are primary needs, such as physiological needs for water, air, food, sleep and shelter. Other needs may be regarded as secondary such as self esteem, status, affiliation with others, affection, giving, accomplishment, and self assertion. These needs vary in intensity and over time between individuals.

Session Overview
In dealing with employees, an intangible factor of will or freedom of choice is introduced and employees can increase or decrease their productivity as they choose. This human quality gives rise to the need for positive motivation. An employees performance can be defined as being determined by the interaction between ability and motivation: Performance=Ability x Motivation The first(Ability) determines what he can do, the second (Motivation)determines what he will do. Therefore motivation is the key element in management of employees .It is of utmost importance.
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Basic Concepts
Motivation is the consequence of an interaction between the individual and the situation. People who are motivated exert a greater effort to perform than those who are not motivated. Motivation is the willingness to do something. It is conditioned by this actions ability to satisfy some need for the individual

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Motivational process
Unsatisfied need Tension Drives Search behaviour Goal achievement Need satisfaction Reduction of tension

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Definition
Motivation is a process which begins with a physiological or psychological need or deficiency which triggers behaviour or a drive that is aimed at a goal or an incentive.

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Definition
It is a general term applying to the entire class of drives, desires, needs, wishes and similar forces. To say that managers motivate their subordinates is to say that they do things which they hope will satisfy these drives and desires and induce the subordinates to act in a desired manner.

Introduction (Cont.)
Motivation defined

Motivation is a psychological process that causes the arousal, direction, and persistence of voluntary actions that are goal directed.
Or

The process by which a persons efforts are energized, directed and sustained toward attaining a goal.

Introduction (Cont.)
that leads to Choice of behavior

Motivation is the psychological process

that results in

Some level of job performance

The Motivation-Behavior-Job Performance Sequence

Types of Motives Primary Motives General Motives Secondary Motives


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Primary Motives
Hunger Thirst Clothing Sleep Maternal concern

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General Motives
Motives which can not be termed primary or secondary Primary needs try to reduce the tension or stimulation whereas the general need induces the individual to enhance the amount of stimulation. Also called stimulus motives-Love ,concern and affection.

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Secondary Motives
Learned drives become secondary motives Includes Curiosity Manipulation

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Achievement drive
The desire of an individual to perform in terms of a particular standard of excellence or the desire to be successful in competitive situations.

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Specific characteristics of a high achiever


Takes moderate risks. Prefers immediate feedback Derives satisfaction on the successful accomplishment of a task Has total concentration or preoccupation with the assigned task

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THEORIES OF MOTIVATION
NEED OR CONTENT THEORY Need hierarchy theory- Maslow Two factor theory-Frederick Herzberg ERG theory-Clayton Alderfer Acquired-needs theory-David C.McClelland COGNITIVE THEORIES Equity theory-J.Stacy Adams Expectancy theory-Victor H. Vroom,Porter and Lawler model Goal setting theory-Locke and latham

Reinforcement theory-B.F.Skinner Behavioural theories


Theory X and Theory Y-McGregor Theory Z- Ouchi

Douglas McGregor's Theory X And Theory Y


Theory X and Theory Y are two sets of assumptions about human nature. They describe two contrasting models of workforce motivation. Theory X and Theory Y have to do with the perceptions managers hold on their employees, not the way they generally behave

Theory X: Assumptions of

Theory X

The average human being is inherently lazy by nature and desires to work as little as possible. He avoids accepting responsibility and prefers to be led or directed by some other. He is self-centered and indifferent to organizational needs. He has little ambition, dislikes responsibility, prefers to be led but wants security. He is not very intelligent and lacks creativity in solving organizational problems. He is, by nature ,resistant to change of any type.

Theory Y
Assumptions of Theory Y
An average man is not really against doing work. People can be self-directed and creative at work if they are motivated properly. External control and threats of punishment alone do not bring out efforts towards organizational objectives. People have capacity to exercise imagination and creativity. People are not by nature passive or resistant to organizational needs. An average human being learns under proper conditions. He is also willing to accept responsibility. .

ABRAHAM MASLOWS HIERARCHY OF NEEDS THEORY


Maslow's theory is based on the Hierarchy of Human Needs. According to Maslow, human behavior is related to his needs. It is adjusted as per the nature of needs to be satisfied. In hierarchy of needs theory, Maslow identified five types / sets of human need arranged in a hierarchy of their importance and priority :
Physiological Needs Security / Safety Needs Social Needs Esteem Needs Self-actualization Needs

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Maslows Hierarchy of Needs


NEEDS General Examples SelfAchievement actualization Status Friendship Stability Food Esteem Social Safety Physiology Challenging job Job title Friends at work Pension plan Base salary Organizational Examples

CLAYTON ALDERFERS ERG THEORY


This theory ,like Maslows theory, describes needs as a hierarchy. Maslows Five needs have been condensed into Three needs: Existence needs- These include need for basic material necessities. In short, it includes an individuals physiological and physical safety needs. Relatedness needs : Maslows social needs and external component of esteem needs fall under this class of need. Growth needs : Maslows self-actualization needs and intrinsic component of esteem needs fall under this category of need.

ALDERFERS THREE NEEDS

DAVID MCCLELLANDS ACQUIRED NEEDS THEORY


McClelland classified three basic motivating needs: Need for achievement (nACH): The n-ach person is 'achievement
motivated' and therefore seeks achievement, attainment of realistic but challenging goals, and advancement in the job

Need for Power (nPWR): The n-pow person is 'authority motivated'.


This driver produces a need to be influential, effective and to make an impact. There is a strong need to lead and for their ideas to prevail.

Need for Affiliation (nAFF): The n-affil person is 'affiliation


motivated', and has a need for friendly relationships and is motivated towards interaction with other people.

Need for Achievement

David McClellands Theory of Needs


Need for Affiliation
The desire for friendly and close personal relationships.

The drive to excel, to achieve in relation to a set of standards, to strive to succeed.

Need for Power


The need to make others behave in a way that they would not have behaved otherwise.

nPow

nAch

nAff

Frederick Herzbergs Two-factor theory


This Theory was propounded by American Psychologist Frederick Herzberg. It is also known as Herzberg's motivationhygiene theory and Dual-Factor Theory

The Theory states that there are certain factors in the workplace that cause job satisfaction, while a separate set of factors cause dissatisfaction. In other words, factors that cause job dissatisfaction are different from the factors that lead to job satisfaction. The opposite of satisfaction is not dissatisfaction but No Satisfaction. Similarly, The opposite of dissatisfaction is not satisfaction but No Dissatisfaction.

Hence, the Two-factor theory distinguishes between: Motivators :(e.g. challenging work, recognition, responsibility) that give positive satisfaction, arising from intrinsic conditions of the job itself, such as recognition, achievement, or personal growth. Hygiene factors (e.g. status, job security, salary, fringe benefits, work conditions) that do not give positive satisfaction, though dissatisfaction results from their absence. These are extrinsic to the work itself, and include aspects such as company policies, supervisory practices, or wages/salary

EQUITY THEORY
First developed in 1963 by John Stacey Adams, a workplace and behavioral psychologist, the equity theory is based on the human instinct of comparison with others.

Equity theory states that employees seek to maintain equity between the inputs that they bring to a job and the outcomes that they receive from it against the perceived inputs and outcomes of others. While evaluating fairness, employee compares the job input (in terms of contribution) to outcome (in terms of compensation) and also compares the same with that of another peer of equal cadre/category. O/I ratio (output-input ratio) is used to make such a comparison.

The persons, system or selves against which individuals compare themselves are known as Referents. Referents can be classified as: 1. Persons 2. Systems 3. Self

Equity Theory
Equity Theory Individuals compare their job inputs and outcomes with those of others and then respond to eliminate any inequities. Referent Comparisons: Self-inside Self-outside

Other-inside
Other-outside

Equity Theory (contd)

Equity Theory (contd)


Choices for dealing with inequity:
1. Change inputs (slack off) 2. Change outcomes (increase output)

3. Distort/change perceptions of self


4. Distort/change perceptions of others 5. Choose a different referent person

6. Leave the field (quit the job)

Equity Theory (contd)


Propositions relating to inequitable pay:

1. Overrewarded hourly employees produce more than equitably rewarded employees.


2. Overrewarded piece-work employees produce less, but do higher quality piece work. 3. Underrewarded hourly employees produce lower quality work. 4. Underrewarded employees produce larger quantities of lower-quality piece work than equitably rewarded employees

Equity Theory (contd)


Distributive Justice Perceived fairness of the amount and allocation of rewards among individuals. Procedural Justice The perceived fairness of the process to determine the distribution of rewards.

Expectancy Theory
Expectancy Theory (Victor Vroom) The strength of a tendency to act in a certain way depends on the strength of an expectation that the act will be followed by a given outcome and on the attractiveness of that outcome to the individual.

Expectancy Theory Relationships


EffortPerformance Relationship
The probability that exerting a given amount of effort will lead to performance.

PerformanceReward Relationship
The belief that performing at a particular level will lead to the attainment of a desired outcome.

RewardsPersonal Goals Relationship


The degree to which organizational rewards satisfy an individuals goals or needs and the attractiveness of potential rewards for the 648 individual.

Performance Dimensions

Source: Adapted from M. Blumberg and C.D. Pringle, The Missing Opportunity in Organizational Research: Some Implications for a Theory of Work Performance, Academy of Management Review, October 1982, p. 565.

B.F. SKINNERS REINFORCEMENT THEORY


According to this theory, past actions and their outcomes influence a persons present and future actions. Past behaviours associated with positive outcomes are repeated in future and behaviours associated with negative outcomes are not repeated. Therefore, the behaviour of a person is not influenced by his inner needs and desires but by the external environment.

KINDS OF REINFORCEMENTS
Four kinds of Reinforcements can result from employee behaviour: 1. Positive Reinforcement such as a pay raise or promotion, is provided as a reward for positive behavior with the intention of increasing the probability that the desired behavior will be repeated.

2. Negative Reinforcement is an attempt to show an employee what the consequences of improper behavior will be. If an employee does not engage in improper behavior, he or she will not experience the consequence.

3. Punishment such as suspensions, threats ,etc, is an attempt to decrease the likelihood of a behavior recurring by applying negative consequences.

4. Extinction Behaviour is basically ignoring the behavior of a subordinate and not providing either positive or negative reinforcement

EDWIN LOCKES GOAL SETTING THEORY


Goal-Setting Theory
Proposes that setting specific goals increase performance, and difficult (challenging) goals result in higher performance than easy goals.

Benefits of Goal-Setting
The specificity (particularity) of the goal itself acts as an internal stimulus (stimulation).
E.g. When a sales representative commits (promises) to making eight sales calls daily, this commitment gives him/her a specific goal to attain.

Goal-Setting Theory

WILLIAM OUCHIS THEORY Z


Theory Z is an approach to management based upon a combination of American and Japanese management philosophies and characterized by, among other things, long-term job security, consensual decision making, slow evaluation and promotion procedures, and individual responsibility within a group context. Proponents of Theory Z suggest that it leads to improvements in organizational performance.

American Organizations Short-term employment

Japanese Organizations Lifetime employment

THEORY Z

Lifetime employment

Individual decision making


Individual responsibility Rapid evaluation & promotion Explicit control mechanisms Segmented concern for employee as an employee

Collective decision making


Collective responsibility Slow evaluation & promotion Implicit control mechanisms Holistic concern for employee as a person

Collective decision making


Individual responsibility Slow evaluation & promotion Implicit control mechanisms Holistic concern for employee as a person

This theory states that an individual tends to act in a certain way based on
a) the expectation that the act will be followed by a given outcome and b) the attractiveness of that outcome to the individual. Key to the theory is understanding employee goals and the linkages (relationships) between effort, performance and rewards.

Victor Vrooms Expectancy Theory

Motivation= Expectancy X Instrumentality X Valence ;


Where,

1. 2. 3.

Expectancy (effort-performance linkage)


How hard do I have to work to achieve a certain level of performance? and Can I actually achieve that level?

Instrumentality (performance-reward linkage)

What reward will that level of performance get me?


How attractive is the reward to me? Whether employees are motivated or not depends on their particular goals and their perception of the level of performance needed to attain those goals.

Valence or attractiveness of reward

Simplified Expectancy Model

The Porter-Lawler model of motivation


Lyman W. Porter and Edward E. Lawler developed a more complete version of the expectancy theory.

The theory states actual performance in a job is primarily determined by the effort spent. But it is also affected by the persons ability to do the job and also by individuals perception of what the required task is. So performance is the responsible factor that leads to intrinsic as well as extrinsic rewards. These rewards, along with the equity of individual leads to satisfaction. Hence, satisfaction of the individual depends upon the fairness of the reward.

Job design theory


The Theory states that managers should design jobs deliberately and thoughtfully to reflect the demands of the changing environment, the organization's technology and employees skills ,abilities and preferences. When jobs are designed like that, employees are motivated to work hard. Managers can design motivating jobs in the following ways:

1. Job Enlargement 2. Job Enrichment 3. Job Characteristic model.

Job Characteristics Model


It was given by Richard Hackman and Greg Oldhman.The model has three elements: Core job characteristics skill variety tasks identity tasks significance autonomy feedback Critical Psychological states feeling that the work is meaningful knowing that they are responsible actually finding out the results

Outcomes: high internal work motivation high satisfaction of growth needs high degree of job satisfaction high degree of work effectiveness

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