CHAPTER 4 ELECTRONIC

Presented By Thomas Cheah

4.1 CATHODE-RAY OSCILLOSCOPE(CRO)

Thermionic emission

Thermionic emission is the process of emission of electrons from a heated metals surface.

How the Thermionic emission occur?

Metal consists of a large number of electrons which are free to move. At room temperature, the electrons are free to move but remain inside the metal. The electrons cannot escape at the surface because they are held back by the attractive forces of the atomic nucleus. If the metal is heated at a high temperature, some of the free electrons may gain sufficient energy to escape from the metal.

4.1 CATHODE-RAY OSCILLOSCOPE(CRO)

Factors affecting the rate of thermionic emission

Surface area of metal Temperature of metal Types of metal Nature of metal surface

4.1 CATHODE-RAY OSCILLOSCOPE(CRO)

Electron Gun

An assembly of cathode and anode in a vacuum tube. It is used to produce beams of fast-moving electrons known as cathode rays.

4.1 CATHODE-RAY OSCILLOSCOPE(CRO)

The properties of cathode rays

Movement is in a straight line because it is light and has high velocity. Has momentum and energy; fluorescent effect when connects with fluorescent items. Negatively charged deflected towards positive plates. Can be deflected by magnetic fields. When collides with metal targets, kinetic energy 99% light and X-rays A deflection tube or the Maltese cross tube is used to study the properties of cathode rays.

4.1 CATHODE-RAY OSCILLOSCOPE(CRO)

To Investigate the properties of electron streams in a Maltese cross cathode ray tube.

4.1 CATHODE-RAY OSCILLOSCOPE(CRO)

4.1 CATHODE-RAY OSCILLOSCOPE(CRO)

4.1 CATHODE-RAY OSCILLOSCOPE(CRO)

4.1 CATHODE-RAY OSCILLOSCOPE(CRO)

4.1 CATHODE-RAY OSCILLOSCOPE(CRO)

Electron gun:

The cathode emits electrons when heated The grid controls the number of electrons reaching anodes control with brightness knob The anode focus electrons into fine beam control with focus knob The potential difference between anode and cathode accelerates electrons to high velocity

4.1 CATHODE-RAY OSCILLOSCOPE(CRO)

Deflection system:

Y-plates: electric field deflects electrons vertically X-plates: electric field deflects electrons horizontally

Fluorescent screen:

When fast electrons hit fluorescent screen, their kinetic energy is converted into light a spot of light is seen on the screen The walls of C.R.O. after anode is coated with graphite and grounded to keep out external electric field

4.1 CATHODE-RAY OSCILLOSCOPE(CRO)

4.1 CATHODE-RAY OSCILLOSCOPE(CRO)

Cathode ray oscilloscopes are used to:

Measure potential difference Measure short time intervals Display wave forms

4.1 CATHODE-RAY OSCILLOSCOPE(CRO)

Measure

potential difference

4.1 CATHODE-RAY OSCILLOSCOPE(CRO)

o
o
o o

Measure potential difference

Peak to Peak potential difference Peak potential difference Root mean square potential difference

4.1 CATHODE-RAY OSCILLOSCOPE(CRO)

Measure

short time intervals

EXERCISE
The figure shows a trace on a CRO set at 5 Volt per division on the vertical axis. (a) What is the maximum voltage (peak voltage) indicated?

EXERCISE
Figure shows a trace on an oscilloscope for an a.c source.If the Y-gain is set to 1.5 Vcm-1 and the timebase is 2 ms cm-1. (a) Calculate the peak voltage,Vp of the a.c source. (b) Calculate the frequency, f of the a.c source

EXERCISE
(c) Sketch the trace displayed on the screen if the settings are changed to 1 Vcm-1 and 1ms cm-1.

EXERCISE
An ultrasound signal is transmitted vertically down to the sea bed. Transmitted and reflected signals are input into an oscilloscope with a time base setting of 150 ms cm-1. The diagram shows the trace of the two signals on the screen of the oscilloscope. The speed of sound in water is 1200 ms-1. What is the depth of the sea?

4.2 SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE

Metals

Good conductors of electricity because they have free electrons that can move easily between atoms The resistance of metals is generally very low. Poor conductors of electricity because they have too few free electrons to move about. The resistance of insulators is very high.

Insulators

4.2 SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE

Semiconductors
A material that has an electrical conductivity that is between that of a conductor and an insulator. The resistance of semiconductors is between that of conductors and insulators. Semiconductors can be pure element such as silicon or germanium. At 0 Kelvin it behaves as an insulator. When the temperature increases, the conductivity of the electricity will increase because its resistance will be lowered.

4.2 SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE

Materials usually used in the electronics industry as semiconductors are silicone and germanium. Doping process is the addition of a small quantity of foreign objects into a semiconductor to increase its conductivity. The atom size of the foreign object has to be about the same size as the atom size of the semiconductor.

4.2 SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE

4.2 SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE

Diode

A semiconductor diode is also known as a p-n junction. A diode allows current to flow in one direction only. A diode consists of a combination of an n-type and a p-type semiconductor.
At the junction of these two semiconductors, the electrons from the ntype semiconductor will float over to fill up the holes in the p-type semiconductor. This will cause opposite charges to exist within the semiconductors; and this will create a a layer of about 1 m thickness which prevents further floatation of the electrons. This layer is known as the depletion layer. The potential difference across the depletion layer is known as junction voltage. The junction voltage of a diode must be overcome before current can flow. Junction voltages for silicone and germanium are approximately 0.6 V and 0.1 V respectively.

4.2 SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE

p-n junction

p +

structure

+ symbol

4.2 SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE

Type of Connections

Forward-biased Reverse-biased

Forward-biased
The p-type of the diode is connected to the positive terminal and the n-type is connected to the negative terminal of a battery. The diode conducts current because the holes from the p-type material and electrons from the n-type material are able to cross over the junction. A light bulb will light up.

4.2 SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE

Forward-biased

4.2 SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE

Reverse-biased
The n-type is connected to the positive terminal and the ptype is connected to the negative terminal of the battery. The reversed polarity causes a very small current to flow as both electrons and holes are pulled away from the junction. When the potential difference due to the widen depletion region equals the voltage of the battery, the current will cease. Therefore the bulb does not light up.

4.2 SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE

Reverse-biased

no current

4.2 SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE

Diodes as Rectifiers

Rectification is the process of converting a.c. to d.c. This is done with a diode as diodes allow current to flow only in one direction. 3 type of rectifications
Half-wave rectification Full-wave rectification Smoothing

4.2 SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE

Half-wave rectification

When a diode is connected in series with the resistor, any current that passes through the resistor must also pass through the diode. Since diode can only allow current to flow in one direction, therefore the current will only flow in the first half-cycle when the diode in forward bias. The current is blocked in the second half-cycle when the diode is in reverse bias.

4.2 SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE

Half-wave rectification

4.2 SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE

Full-wave rectification
A process where both halves of every cycle of an alternating current is made to flow in the same direction. In the first half, the current flows from A to P to TU to R to B In the second half, the current flows from B to S to TU to Q to A. The direction of the ac current passing through the resistor for each half cycle is the same ie T to U.

4.2 SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE

Smoothing

When the current pass through the resistor and capacitor, the capacitor is charged and stores energy. When there is no current pass through the resistor and capacitor, the capacitor discharge and the energy from it is used to produce voltage across the resistor. As a result it produces a smooth d.c. output.
VD

a.c. V

C R

VR

smoothing capacitor

4.3 TRANSISTORS
Transistors are electronic devices that act as a transfer resistor to control the current and potential difference within an electronic circuit. Transistors are a combination of two types of semiconductors, i.e. type p and type n. Transistors have three electrodes:

Base (B) Collector (C) Emitter (E)

4.3 TRANSISTORS

4.3 TRANSISTORS

Formula

IC IB; i.e. IB = 0, IC = 0 IB IC; i.e. IC = 0, IB 0 A small change in IB causes a big change in IC.

4.3 TRANSISTORS

Transistor as a current amplifier

4.3 TRANSISTORS

Component Microphone Capacitor

Function Converts sound signals to electrical signals Prevents d.c. from flowing into the transistor and loudspeaker Amplifies input signal Converts electrical signals to sound

Transistor Loudspeaker

4.3 TRANSISTORS

Light controlled switch

Light-dependent resistor (LDR) changes resistance depending on presence of light Very high resistance in the dark Low resistance in bright light

4.3 TRANSISTORS

Heat controlled switch

Thermistor is a heat-dependent resistor Resistance increases when it is cold Resistance drops when it is hot

4.4 LOGIC GATE

Logic Gate

electronic switches that have one or more input and only one output

Truth table
a table which lists all possible situations for input and output through logic gates the number of possible combinations N for n input variables: