Axes of Graphs

x axis: the horizontal line along which values of x are measured x values increase from left to right y axis: the vertical line up which values of y are measured y values increase from bottom to top Origin: the point at which the axes intersect where x and y are both 0
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Terms used in Plotting Points

Coordinates: a pair of numbers (x,y) that represent the position of a point
the first number is the horizontal distance of the point from the origin the second number is the vertical distance

Positive quadrant: the area above the x axis and to the right of the y axis where both x and y take positive values
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Plotting Negative Values

To the left of the origin x is negative As we move further left x becomes more negative and smaller Example: 6 is a smaller number than 2 and occurs to the left of it on the x axis
On the y axis negative numbers occur below the origin
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Variables, Constants and Functions

Variable: a quantity represented by a symbol that can take different possible values Constant: a quantity whose value is fixed, even if we do not know its numerical amount Function: a systematic relationship between pairs of values of the variables, written y = f(x)
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Working with Functions

If y is a function of x, y = f(x) A function is a rule telling us how to obtain y values from x values x is known as the independent variable, y as the dependent variable The independent variable is plotted on the horizontal axis, the dependent variable on the vertical axis
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Proportional Relationship
Each y value is the same amount times the corresponding x value All points lie on a straight line through the origin
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60 40 20 0 0 5

y = 6x

10 x

Example: y = 6x

Linear Relationships
Linear function: a relationship in which all the pairs of values form points on a straight line Shift: a vertical movement upwards or downwards of a line or curve Intercept: the value at which a function cuts the y
80 y 60 40 20 0 0 5 x 10 y = 6x y = 6x + 20

General Form of a Linear Function

A function with just a term in x and (perhaps) a constant is a linear function It has the general form y = a + bx b is the slope of the line a is the intercept
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Power Functions
Power: an index indicating the number of times that the item to which it is applied is multiplied by itself Quadratic function: a function in which the highest power of x is 2
The only other terms may be a term in x and a constant

Cubic function: a function in which the highest power of x is 3

The only other terms may be in x 2, x and a constant
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Writing Algebraic Statements

The multiplication sign is often omitted, or sometimes replaced by a dot An expression in brackets immediately preceded or followed by a value implies that the whole expression in the brackets is to be multiplied by that value Example: y = 3(5 + 7x) = 15 + 21x

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The Order of Algebraic Operations is

1.
2. 3. 4.

If there are brackets, do what is inside the brackets first Exponentiation, or raising to a power Multiplication and division Addition and subtraction
You may like to remember the acronym BEDMAS, meaning brackets, exponentiation, division, multiplication, addition, subtraction

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Positive and Negative Signs

When two signs come together + (or + ) gives gives + Examples: 11 + ( 7) = 11 7 = 4 12 ( 4) = 12 + 4 = 16 ( 9) ( 5) = +45
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Multiplying or Dividing by 1
1x=x ( 1) x = x x1=x

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Multiplying or Dividing by 0
Any value multiplied by 0 is 0

0 divided by any value except 0 is 0 Division by 0 gives an infinitely large number which may be positive or negative 0 0 may have a finite value Example: When quantity produced Q = 0, variable cost VC = 0 but average variable cost = VC/Q may have a finite value
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Brackets
An expression in brackets written immediately next to another expression implies that the expressions are multiplied together Example: 5x (7x 4) = (5x) (7x 4)
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Multiplying out Brackets 1

One pair: multiply each of the terms in brackets by the term outside Example: 5x (7x 4) = 35x2 20x

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Multiplying out Brackets 2

Two pairs: multiply each term in the second bracket by each term in the first bracket Examples: (3x 2)(11 + 5x) = 33x + 15x2 22 10x = 15x2 + 23x 22

(a b)( c + d) = ac + ad + bc bd
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Results of Multiplying out Brackets

(a + b)2
(a b)2

= (a + b) (a + b) = a2 + 2 ab + b2
= (a b) (a b) = a2 2 ab + b2

(a + b)(a b) = a2 ab + ab b2 = a2 b2
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Factorizing
Look for a common factor, or for expressions that multiply together to give the original expression Example: 45x2 60x = 15x (3x 4) Factorizing a quadratic expression may involve some intelligent guesswork Example: 45x2 53x 14 = (9x + 2) (5x 7)
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Fractions
Fraction: a part of a whole Amount of an item = fractional share of item total amount

Ratio: one quantity divided by another quantity Numerator: the value on the top of a fraction Denominator: the value on the bottom of a fraction
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Cancelling
Cancelling is dividing both numerator and denominator by the same amount Examples:

70 7 2 5 2 105 5 7 3 3
3 2

8x z 4 2 x.x z 2x 3 2 5 2 2 3 28 x z 4 7 x z .z 7z
2 2
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Inequality Signs
> sign: the greater than sign indicates that the value on its left is greater than the value on its right
< sign: the less than sign indicates that the value on its left is less than the value on its right
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Comparisons using Common Denominator

Example: To find the bigger of 3/7 and 9/20 multiply both numerator and denominator of each fraction by the denominator of the other: 3/7 = (20 3)/(20 7) = 60/140 9/20 = (7 9)/(7 20) = 63/140 Since 63/140 > 60/140 9/20 > 3/7
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Adding and Subtracting Fractions

To add or subtract fractions first write them with a common denominator and then add or subtract the numerators Lowest common denominator: the lowest value that is exactly divisible by all the denominators to which it refers
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Multiplying and Dividing Fractions

Fractions are multiplied by multiplying together the numerators and also the denominators To divide by a fraction turn it upside down and multiply by it Reciprocal of a value: is 1 divided by that value
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Functions of More Than 1 Variable

Multivariate function: the dependent variable, y, is a function of more than one independent variable If y = f(x,z) y is a function of the two variables x and z We substitute values for x and z to find the value of the function If we hold one variable constant and investigate the effect on y of changing the other, this is a form of comparative statics analysis
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