03 Concrete

1. CEMENTING MATERIALS 1.01 Lime 1.02 Gypsum 1.03 Cement 2.
STORAGE OF CEMENT
BUILDING TECHNOLOGY I
3. CONCRETE 3.01 Definition 3.02 Qualities of Good Concrete 3.03 Materials of Concrete 3.04 Slump Test 3.05 Proportioning 3.06 Mixing 3.07 Transporting and Placing 3.08 Shrinkage 3.09 Curing 3.10 Admixtures 3.11 Forms
4. PROCESSED CONCRETE 4.01 Types of Processed Concrete 4.02 Aggregates for Light-weight Conc.
1. CEMENTING MATERIALS 1.01 Lime 1.02 Gypsum 1.03 Cement 2. STORAGE OF CEMENT
1. 1.01
CEMENTING MATERIALS LIME One of the oldest manufactured building materials used as a mortar and plaster by all the early civilizations:
Egyptians used lime plaster before 2600 B.C. Greeks used it extensively for mortars and plasters Romans developed a mixture of lime putty and volcanic ash for the first real cement.
Manufactured by the calcination of limestone (carbonates of calcium and magnesium).
1. 1.01
CEMENTING MATERIALS LIME The carbonates decompose into carbon dioxide, which is expelled, and calcium oxide (CaO) called quicklime. Before quicklime can be used, it must first be mixed with water in the process called slaking or hydration.
Quicklime
The lime has now become calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2), known as slaked lime or hydrated lime.
1. 1.01
CEMENTING MATERIALS LIME Hydrated lime mixed with water to make lime putty, is used as an ingredient of hard-finish coat for two-and three-coat Portland cement plasters. It is also used for mixing with cement mortar or concrete to: increase its workability decrease its permeability to water reduce cracking due to shrinkage A type of lime which will set under water is hydraulic lime, used only where slow underwater setting is required.
1. 1.02
CEMENTING MATERIALS GYPSUM Gypsum, like lime, was used as a plaster by the Egyptians, Greeks and Romans. Plaster from the Greek word for both the raw material and calcined product. In architectural terminology the words Plaster and gypsum are often used interchangeably. Gypsum rock is ground fine and heated (calcined) to between 325 F. to 340 F. when it loses about three-fourths of its combined water. The remaining product is Plaster of Paris if pure gypsum is used, or hard wall plaster if 39.5 % impurities are present or added to retard the set and improve the setting qualities. Hard wall plaster is harder than lime plaster, sets more quickly and thoroughly.
1. 1.02
CEMENTING MATERIALS GYPSUM Gypsum plaster is rendered more plastic by the addition of hydrated lime. Fiber or hair is also sometimes added for greater cohesiveness. The fiber may be hemp, sisal or jute; the hair is generally cleaned goat or cattle hair.
1. 1.03
CEMENTING MATERIALS CEMENT First developed by the Romans by mixing slaked lime with pozzolana (volcanic ash) which hardened under water.
With the fall of the Roman Empire the art of cement-making was lost and for several centuries.
In 1756, Smeaton, an Englishman, rediscovered hydraulic cement but it was not until 1824 that Aspdin, an English bricklayer and mason, invented and patented Portland cement. Today, the word cement generally refers to Portland cement which is the principal type of cement in use.
1. 1.03
CEMENTING MATERIALS CEMENT Portland cement is obtained by finely pulverizing clinker produced by calcining a proportioned mixture of argillaceous (silica, alumina) and calcareous (lime) materials with iron oxide and small amounts of other ingredients. Types of Portland cement: slow-setting cement quick-setting high early strength cement sulfate-resisting cement for applications where alkaline water and soils occur white cement (or stainless cement which is free of iron impurities).
Portland cement is sold in bags of 40 kilos total weight.
2.
STORAGE OF CEMENT
Cement should be protected at the building site from injury through contact with dampness.
They should be stored in shed with a wood floor raised about 300mm (12) from the ground.
Cement is soft and silky to the touch. If it has lumps do not readily break, the cement has already absorbed a damaging amount of moisture. Cement should be used as soon as possible after delivery. Piles should be limited to twelve sacks in height.
Warehouse set - when the cement is stored in high piles for long periods, there is a tendency for the lower layers to harden caused by the pressure above.
3. 3.01
CONCRETE DEFINITION Concrete is:
a proportioned mixture of cement, aggregate and water.

a plastic mass which can be cast, molded or formed into predetermined size or shape upon hydration, becomes stone-like in strength, hardness and durability. The hardening of concrete is called setting. when mixed with water and a fine aggregate of less than 6mm () is known as mortar, stucco or cement plaster. when mixed with water, fine aggregate and a large aggregate of more than 6mm () in size produces concrete. when strengthened by reinforced concrete. embedded steel, is called
when without reinforcement, is called plain or mass concrete.
3. 3.02
CONCRETE QUALITIES OF GOOD CONCRETE Concrete should be: Strong Durable of uniform quality, and thoroughly sound.
These are obtained through: careful selection of materials correct proportioning thorough mixing careful transporting and placing proper curing or protection of the concrete after it is placed
3. 3.03
CONCRETE MATERIALS OF CONCRETE a. Cement in reinforced-concrete construction should be highgrade Portland cement conforming to the Standard Specifications and Test for Portland Cement of the American Society for Testing Materials (ASTM). The kind of tests usually made are:
soundness, or constancy of volume time of setting fineness tensile strength

Each bag of cement is equivalent to approximately 1 cu. ft. and weighs 94 lbs.
3. 3.03
CONCRETE MATERIALS OF CONCRETE b. Aggregates are: inert mineral fillers used with cement and water in making concrete, should be particles that are durable strong, clean, hard and uncoated, and which are free from injurious amount of dusts, lumps, soft and flaky particles, shale, alkali, organic matter loam or other deleterious substances. Fine aggregates (aggregates smaller than 6mm () in size) consist of sand, stone screenings or other inert materials of similar characteristics. Specs: 80 to 95% shall pass a No. 4 wire cloth sieve and not more than 30% nor less than 10% shall pass a No. 50 sieve.
3. 3.03
CONCRETE MATERIALS OF CONCRETE b. Aggregates Coarse aggregate (aggregate larger than in size) consists of crushed stones, gravel or other inert materials of similar characteristics.
Coarse aggregates should be well graded in size to a size which will readily pass between all reinforcing bars and between reinforcement and forms but not exceed 25mm (1) in size for reinforced beams, floor slabs, & thin walls. They may range up to 50mm (2) for less highly reinforced parts of the structures such as footings, thick walls, and massive work.
3. 3.03
CONCRETE MATERIALS OF CONCRETE b. Aggregates Special aggregates, such as cinders, blast furnace slag, expanded shale or clay, perlite, vermiculite, and sawdust, may produce: - lightweight, nailable concrete - thermal insulating concrete.
3. 3.03
CONCRETE MATERIALS OF CONCRETE c. Water - should be free from oil, acid, alkali, vegetable matter, or other deleterious substances - should be reasonably clear and clean.
- The use of sea or brackish water is not allowed.

- Water combines with the cement to form a paste which coats and surrounds the inert particles of aggregates. - Upon hardening, it binds the entire mass together. - The strength of the mixture therefore depends directly upon the strength of the paste. If there be an excess of water the paste becomes thin and weak and its holding power is reduced.
3. 3.03
CONCRETE MATERIALS OF CONCRETE c. Water - The water-cement ratio is the amount of water used per bag of cement. - This usually varies from 5 to 7 gallons, with 6.5 gallons as average for ordinary job conditions. The less water used in mixing, the better the quality of concrete. - The ideal mix is one that is plastic and workable. It should not be too dry that it becomes too difficult to place in the forms, nor too wet that separation of the ingredients result.
WATER CEMENT RATIO
Assumed 28-day Compressive strength (lbs. per sq. inch) Maximum water-cement ratio U.S. gallons of water per sack Cement of 94 lbs. Pounds of water per 100 lbs. of cement
2,000 2,500 3,000 3,750
7.00 6.50 5.75 5.00
62.0 57.5 51.0 44.5
3. 3.04
CONCRETE SLUMP TEST - used for measuring the consistency of a concrete mix. - Consistency may be defined as the state of fluidity of the mix, and it includes the entire range of fluidity from the wettest to the dries possible mixtures. In this test the tendency of a mix to slump, or reduce its height due to gravity action, is measured. The apparatus consist of metal cone, the bottom opening being 200mm (8) in diameter, the top opening being 100mm (4), and the height exactly 300mm (12).
3. 3.04
CONCRETE SLUMP TEST In making the test, the slump tester is placed on a flat, smooth surface and is filled with newly mixed concrete from mixer. In filling the mold with concrete, the latter is tamped in with a 12mm () rod pointed at one end and the top of the concrete is smoothed off exactly level. The mold is then slowly raised vertically and the height deducted from the original height of 300mm (12) represents the slump.
No slump
Collapsed slump
SLUMP
Bucket
TOO WET
SUITABLE
TOO DRY
3. 3.04
CONCRETE SLUMP TEST A harsh mix is efficient for slabs, pavements, or mass concrete where the lowest possible water-cement ratio is desirable. The following table gives the permissible slump for various types of concrete in relation to their uses: CONSISTENCY (SLUMP)
Maximum Minimum
Reinforced footings
foundation
walls
and and
125mm (5) 100mm (4) 150mm (6) 75mm (3) 75mm (3)
50mm (2) 25mm (1) 75mm (3) 25mm (1) 25mm (1)
Plain footings, substructure walls
caissons,
Slabs, beams, thin reinforced walls & building columns Pavements and floor laid on ground Heavy mass construction
3. 3.05
CONCRETE PROPORTIONING OF CONCRETE Briefly stated, the principles of proper proportioning are as follows: a. b. Use good quality materials: Portland cement, water, and aggregate. Determine the strength of the concrete using the water-cement ratio. (The strength increases as the water-cement ratio decreases). Determine the consistency of the mix using the slump test using as dry a mix as practicable. Add correct proportions of aggregates to the cement and water as will give a mix of the desired consistency. Make a mix thats workable, not harsh.
c. d.
e.
3. 3.05
CONCRETE PROPORTIONING OF CONCRETE The strength of a workable concrete mix depends upon the water-cement ratio.
The economy of the mix depends upon the proper proportioning of the fine and coarse aggregates.
There are several methods of proportioning concrete: a. b. c. Proportioning by arbitrary proportions Proportioning by the water-ratio and slump test Proportioning by water-ratio, slump and fineness modulus
Proportioning concrete by the arbitrary selection of the proportions is the oldest, the most commonly used, the most convenient and the least scientific method.
In this method, the aggregates are measured by loose volume, that is, its volume as it is thrown into a measuring box. One sack of cement is taken as 1 cu. ft. Enough water is used to give the desired consistency.
3. 3.05
CONCRETE PROPORTIONING OF CONCRETE
a.
Proportioning by arbitrary proportions

1 foot
In this method, the aggregates are measured by loose volume, that is, its volume as it is thrown into a measuring box.
1 foot
One sack of cement is taken as 1 cu. ft. Enough water is used to give the desired consistency.
1 foot
Proportioning concrete by the arbitrary selection of the proportions is the oldest, the most commonly used, the most convenient and the least scientific method.
3. 3.05
CONCRETE PROPORTIONING OF CONCRETE Common mixes expressed in proportions by volumes of cement to fine aggregate to coarse aggregate are as follows: CONCRETE PROPORTIONS
Class AA Class A
1 : 1.5 : 3 1: 2 :4
For concrete under water, retaining walls For suspended slabs, beams, columns, arches, stairs, walls of 100mm (4) thickness For walls thicker than 100mm (4), footings, steps, reinforced concrete slabs on fill. For concrete plant boxes, and any non-critical concrete structures. For mass concrete works.
Class B
Class C Class D
1 : 2.5 : 5
1: 3 :6 1 : 3.5 : 7
The proportion is to be read: Class A : 1 part cement is to 2 parts sand is to 4 parts gravel.
Each part is equivalent to one cubic foot which is the measure of the box constructed to be 1 foot (12 inches) on each of the three sides. Each bag of cement is equivalent to approximately one cubic foot.
3. 3.05
CONCRETE PROPORTIONING OF CONCRETE b. Proportioning by the water-ratio and slump test There are two steps to be observed: - Select the amount of water to be added to the cement to give the desired strength (see Table) - Add just enough mixed aggregate to the water and cement to give a concrete mix the desired consistency. It is customary to specify - the cement in sacks - the water in gallons per sack of cement and - the mixed aggregate in cu. ft. per sack of cement. Proportions of cement to fine aggregate to coarse aggregate may be given if desired.
3. 3.05
CONCRETE PROPORTIONING OF CONCRETE c. Proportioning by water-ratio, slump and fineness modulus This method is the same as the second except that the proportions of the fine and coarse aggregate are determined by the fineness modulus method. For economy, proportion the fine coarse aggregates so that the largest quantity of mixed aggregate may be used with a given amount of cement and water to produce a mix of the desired consistency of slump. Comparatively, the coarse aggregate has a lesser total surface to be covered with cement paste and, therefore, is more economical. However, there must be enough fine aggregate present to fill the voids in the coarse aggregate, or extra cement paste will be needed for this purpose. A well-graded aggregate contains all sizes of fine and coarse particles in such proportions that the voids in the combined aggregate will be a minimum.
3. 3.06
CONCRETE MIXING OF CONCRETE Reinforced-concrete work should be mixed by machine Machine-mixed concrete is usually or more uniform quality than that mixed by hand and is generally less expensive when in large volume. The strength of concrete is very largely dependent upon the thoroughness of mixing.
3. 3.06
CONCRETE MIXING OF CONCRETE a. MACHINE MIXING In machine-mixing, the mixing of each batch should continue not less than one minute after all the materials are in the mixer and whenever practicable, the length of the mixing time should be increased to 1.5 or 2 minutes. The entire contents of the drum should be discharged before recharging the mixer. The mixer should be cleaned at frequent intervals while in use. Concrete mixers may be divided into two general classes: Batch mixers into which sufficient materials are placed at one time to make a convenient size batch of concrete, the whole amount being discharged in one mass after it is mixed.
3. 3.06
CONCRETE MIXING OF CONCRETE a. MACHINE MIXING
Continuous mixers into which the materials are fed constantly and from which the concrete is discharged in a steady stream. Concrete mixers may also be classified as: drum mixers trough mixers gravity mixers, and pneumatic mixers.
The drum mixers are the most common type.
3. 3.06
CONCRETE MIXING OF CONCRETE b. HAND MIXING - hand-mixing must be done on a water-tight platform. - cement and fine aggregate shall first be mixed dry until the whole is a uniform color. - water and coarse aggregate shall then be added and the entire mass turned at least three times, or until a homogeneous mixture of the required consistency is obtained.
3. 3.06
CONCRETE MIXING OF CONCRETE b. HAND MIXING - since initial set of concrete takes place 1 to 3 hours after mixing, a batch may be used anytime before initial set takes place, provided that the mix is plastic. - Regaging or retempering of concrete that has been allowed to stand more than hour is not to be permitted.
3. 3.07
CONCRETE TRANSPORTING AND PLACING OF CONCRETE Fresh concrete should be transported from the mixer as rapidly as practicable by methods that will permit the placing of the concrete in the forms before initial set occurs and without loss or separation of materials. The delivery of the concrete from the mixer to the forms should be fairly continuous and uninterrupted. The time of transportation should not exceed 30 minutes.
3. 3.07
CONCRETE TRANSPORTING AND PLACING OF CONCRETE The concrete may be transported by means of barrows, buggies, buckets, cableways, hoists, chutes, belts and pipes. When chutes are used, the slope should not be more than 1 vertical to 2 horizontal or less than 1 vertical to 3 horizontal. The delivery end of the chutes shall be as close as possible to the point of deposit.
3. 3.07
CONCRETE TRANSPORTING AND PLACING OF CONCRETE Before placing concrete, the forms shall be cleaned and inspected, surfaces wetted or oiled, and reinforcement properly secured. Concrete should be deposited in approximately horizontal layers in wall, column and footing forms. They should not be piled up in the forms which may result in the separation of the cement mortar from the coarse aggregate. Concrete should never be allowed to drop freely over 5 ft. for unexposed work and over 3 ft. for exposed work.
3. 3.08
CONCRETE SHRINKAGE OF CONCRETE & TEMPERATURE CHANGES Shrinkage of concrete due to hardening and contraction from temperature changes, causes cracks the size of which depends on the extent of the mass. They cannot be counteracted successfully but they can be minimized by placing reinforcement so that large cracks can be broken up to some extent to smaller ones. In long continuous length of concrete, it is better to place shrinkage or contraction joints. Shrinkage cracks are likely to occur at joints where fresh concrete is joined to concrete which has already set, and hence in placing the concrete, construction joints should be made on horizontal and vertical lines.
3. 3.09
CONCRETE CURING OF CONCRETE Concrete must be allowed to cure or harden after it is placed.
Hardening is a rather slow process in which the cement and water unite to form compounds that give strength and durability to the concrete. It continues as long as the temperatures are favorable and moisture is present.
Three main factors that affect hardening are: - age or time - temperature, and - moisture.
3. 3.09
CONCRETE CURING OF CONCRETE In order that the hardening may proceed favorably, the fresh concrete, for about 7 days after placing, should be protected from, excessive vibration, loads, extreme heat or cold, too rapid drying, and contact with impurities which may interfere with the chemical action. The strength of the concrete increases with age when the curing conditions remains favorable.
3. 3.09
CONCRETE CURING OF CONCRETE The increase in strength is rapid during the early ages and continues more slowly as time goes on. The compressive strength reaches about 60% of its own maximum value at an age of 28 days and about 80% at an age of 3 months.
3. 3.09
CONCRETE CURING OF CONCRETE Curing consists primarily in keeping the concrete from drying out too rapidly. This may be done by: a. Covering the concrete. Floors shall be covered with paper sacking wetted down at the edges or with burlap, sand or earth that is kept moist, after the concrete is hard enough to walk on. Removal of forms at prescribed time. Forms shall not be removed until after the time specified. Sprinkling with water. Beams, columns and walls are sprinkled or sprayed with water as soon as the forms are removed. Using curing compounds (see ADMIXTURES).
b. c.
d.
3. 3.09
CONCRETE CURING OF CONCRETE

Parts of Structure CURING PERIOD or TIME REQUIRED FOR THE REMOVAL OF FORMS
a. 1 day (24 hours) b. 5 days (120 hours) c. 5 days (120 hours)
a. Up to 2 M. high: 1 day (24 hours). Add 1 day (24 hours) for every additional meter or fraction thereof. b. Up to 2 M. high: 2 days (48 hours. Add 1-1/2 days (36 hours) for every additional meter or fraction thereof c. Without loads, same as (b).
FOOTINGS
a. Massive footings b. Cantilever footings c. Slab footings

a. Massive walls, 30 cms. thick or more b. Thin walls less than 30 cms. Thick c. Cantilever walls, buttresses, counter forts, diaphragms.
WALLS AND PLASTERS
COLUMNS
a. Ratio of height to least diameter up to 4 b. Ratio of height to least diameter from 4 to 15.
a. 2 days (48 hours)
b. Add to the above number 1 day (24 hours) for every additional meter or height or fraction there of but not more than 28 days (672 hours).
3. 3.09
CONCRETE CURING OF CONCRETE

Parts of Structure CURING PERIOD or TIME REQUIRED FOR THE REMOVAL OF FORMS
a. 3 ft. span, 5 days (120 hours). Add day (12 hours) for every additional 1 ft. span or fraction thereof. b. 7 ft. span, 7 days (168 hours). Add 1 day (24 hours) for every additional 1 ft. span or fraction thereof but not more than 28 days (672 hours). a. 3 days b. Up to 14 ft., 14 days (336 hours). Add 1 day for every 1 ft. additional span or fraction thereof but not more than 28 days (672 hours). a. 7 days (168 hours). b. 14 days (336 hours) c. 21 days (504 hours) a. 1 day (24 hours) a. 3 days (72 hours) b. 14 days (336 hours)
SLABS
a. 3 to 7 ft. spans
b. Over 7 ft. span
BEAMS AND GIRDERS
a. Sides b. Bottoms
ARCHES
a. Spandrel walls b. Spandrel arches c. Main arches a. Steel & side forms a. Sides. b. Bottom
BALUSTRADES , COPINGS,ETC. R.C. PILES and R.C. POSTS
3. 3.10
CONCRETE ADMIXTURES Substances added to cements, mortars, and concrete for the purpose of improving or imparting particular properties, such as: To improve workability of concrete, e.g. hydrated lime To improve durability by entertainment of air To accelerate setting or hardening (accelerators) e.g. calcium chloride To retard setting (retarders). To improve wear resistance To impart water-repellant or water-proofing qualities e.g. hydrated lime, KAOLINE, CELITE To impart water-repellant or waterproofing qualities, e.g., hydrated lime, waterproofing compounds, KAOLINE, CELITE. To impart color, MINERAL OXIDES, COLORCON, METALICHROME.
3. 3.10
CONCRETE ADMIXTURES Admixtures may be grouped into three categories: those for mixing into concrete those for mixing into mortar those for surface application or finish. Admixtures come in powder, paste, and liquid form, and are usually patented and sold under trademark names.
3. 3.10
CONCRETE ADMIXTURES Concrete admixtures include: a. Accelerators - to speed up setting time, to develop earlier strength, and to reduce length of time for protection. Principal ingredients are calcium chloride. Maximum amount added is 2 lbs. per bag of cement. Disadvantages: they increase the expansion and contraction of concrete, reduce resistance to sulfate attack, and increases efflorescence and corrosion of high tension steels. b. Retarders - to slow down the hydration of the cement during very hot weather. Principal ingredients include zinc oxide, calcium lignosulfonate, derivatives of adipic acid. Disadvantages: may cause some loss of early strength and will therefore require careful control and more frequent slump tests, also reduces the expansion and contraction of concrete.
3. 3.10
CONCRETE ADMIXTURES c. Air-entraining agents - introduce minute air bubbles to greatly increase the resistance of concrete to freezing and thawing, increase plasticity and reduce bleeding. Addition of air-entraining admixtures is usually in the proportion of 3 to 6% of the volume of concrete. They are manufactured from such ingredients as rosin, beef tallow, stereates, foaming agents (soap). Disadvantages: These require careful control and more frequent slump tests. They may also cause some loss of strength. d. Inert, finely divided powders such as powdered glass , silica sand, stone dust, hydrated lime - are added to improve workability, used as per manufacturers directions. Hydrated lime is usually in the proportion of 10 to 15% of the cement by volume.
3. 3.10
CONCRETE ADMIXTURES e. Waterproofing (permeability-reducing) compounds - reduce the capillary attraction of the voids in the concrete or mortar, but while it may decrease water absorption of the concrete or mortar, it does not render concrete waterproof. They are manufactured from stearic acid or its compounds, mainly calcium steareate, and include asphalt emulsions. They are introduced usually in the amounts of 0.1 to 4.0% of the weight of cement.
3. 3.10
CONCRETE ADMIXTURES f. Colored pigments are mainly to used to give color to concrete floors. There are two types: Dry-cast, broadcast or dust-on, for surface coloring. They are dusted on, usually in two coats, after all surface water has disappeared. The surface is then finished with a steel trowel . Integral colors, for body coloring. Integral color pigments are incorporated in the mortar topping. They are mixed dry with the cement and aggregate before water is added. Amount of color pigment required is not more than 10% of the cement by weight, generally 3 to 6 lbs. per bag of cement .
3. 3.10
CONCRETE ADMIXTURES Admixtures for mixing into mortar include: Accelerators plasticizing agents (correctly called water-reducing agents) to lower water cement ratio and make the mix more workable waterproofing agents, and color pigments Surface application finishes for concrete consist of: hardeners color pigments special aggregates sealers abrasive materials waterproofing agents, and fillers and patchers.
3. 3.11
CONCRETE FORMS a. LUMBER FORMS Lumber used in form construction should only be partially seasoned. Kiln-dried lumber has a tendency to swell when soaked by the concrete, and this swelling causes bulging and distortion of the forms. Green lumber, on the other hand, dries out and shrinks if allowed to stand too long before the concrete is placed. This tendency of green lumber to check and warp may, however, be prevented to some extent by keeping the boards thoroughly saturated with water.
3. 3.11
CONCRETE FORMS a. LUMBER FORMS
When using natural, well seasoned lumber, care should be taken not to drive the work up too close, since forms should always be left in a position to experience some slight swelling without any undesirable results.
3. 3.11
Sheathing lumber dressed at least one side and both edges even are used where the removal and cleaning of the forms are necessary for re-use .
Sheathing lumber dressed on all four sides shall be used in face work, where smooth and true surface is important. Tongue-and-groove lumber will achieve tight joints between boards in floor and wall panel construction. Simply dressing the lumber true to edge form square of butt joints in the forms for columns, beams, and girders. Sizes of lumber frequently used :
2-inch thick for columns, beams and girder bottoms 1-inch thick for floor panels and beam and girder sides 2x4s for struts, posts, shores, and uprights 1 or 2-inch thick for cleats
3. 3.11
Use nails sparingly in the construction of forms because unnecessary nailing not only adds to the labor of wrecking but also renders the lumber unfit for continued use. Where nails must be used, leave the head protruding so that they may be withdrawn without injury to the lumber.
3. 3.11
All forms for concrete require a coating of some lubricant to prevent concrete from adhering to the wood and thus make a rough, unpleasant appearance. Crude oil and petroline preserve the forms against damage by alternate wetting and drying. The forms should preferably be oiled before they are set in place. Oil should not be used, however, on forms against surfaces which are to be plastered, as oil prevents adhesion of the plaster. In such cases, wetting with water will be sufficient.
3. 3.11
CONCRETE FORMS a. LUMBER FORMS The inside of forms which have been used once and are to be used again shall be coated an approved soap or other approved material, or thoroughly wetted before concreting. No application of soap or other material should be made to forms after the reinforcements are in place. The forms should be durable and rigid, and should be well braced so that bulging or twisting cannot occur. The joints should be made tight enough to prevent leakage of the mortar.
3. 3.11
CONCRETE FORMS b. PLYWOOD FORMS Works best where a smooth surface is required. The plywood should be waterproof, Grade A and at least 12mm () thick. c. STEEL FORMS Steel forms may be in the form of pans for concrete joist construction or steel decking or corrugated steel for concrete slabs and slab-and-joist construction. . PLASTIC FORMS Polystyrene forms are now available for concrete work.
d.
4.
PROCESSED CONCRETE
4.01 TYPES OF PROCESSED CONCRETE a. AEROCRETE This is a lightweight, expanded structural concrete produced by adding a small amount of metallic aluminum powder to the mixture of Portland cement and sand of cinders. On the addition of water, a gas is generated which expands the wet mix and forms small air cells throughout the material. It is used for structural floor and roof slabs, partition blocks for sound proofing, wall insulation, in rooms of refrigerator plants, lightweight fill on top of structural floor and roof slabs. In addition to its light weight, it has excellent fireresistive qualities.
4.
PROCESSED CONCRETE
4.01 TYPES OF PROCESSED CONCRETE b. GUNITE This is the mixture of sand and cement deposited under high pneumatic pressure with a machine manufactured under the trade name CEMENT GUN, to which the required supply of water is added just before the dry constituents emerge from nozzle. GUNITE is used for encasing structural steel, when reinforced, for floor and roof slabs and curtain walls. Ideal for swimming pool construction.
4.
PROCESSED CONCRETE
4.01 TYPES OF PROCESSED CONCRETE c. PORETE A Portland cement concrete to which a chemical foam is added to generate gases in the process of deposition, resulting in light weight precast or shopmade unit in both hollow and solid forms. It is manufactured in solid slabs for short spans roofs and siding of industrial buildings.
d.
HAYDITE
This is processed concrete added with lightweight aggregate .
4.
PROCESSED CONCRETE
4.02 AGGREGATES FOR LIGHTWEIGHT CONCRETE Lightweight aggregates have the following advantages: Reduction of dead loads saves structural steel, reduces bearing on foundation and cuts cost of concrete forms
High insulating value is provided by numerous dead air spaces .

Rough texture of surfaces have good acoustical properties
.
Lightweight allows easier handling of precast slabs and blocks Lightweight plaster has less tendency to crack and its heat resistance makes it a good material for fireproofing structural steel
4.
PROCESSED CONCRETE
4.02 AGGREGATES FOR LIGHTWEIGHT CONCRETE The major disadvantages of lightweight aggregates are a result paradoxically of the physical qualities which make them weight saving and good insulators : Porosity requires changes in the usual formulas for water and slump, and closer supervision of mixing. Very light aggregates tend to float out of the mortar and some coarse aggregate concrete mixtures require the addition of a fine aggregate like sand to prevent harsh working and serious bleeding.
As aggregates become lighter they become structurally weaker so the strength of the matrix must be modified by adding more cement. More cement is needed, also to wet the greater aggregate surface area, due to the irregularity of the particles .
4.
PROCESSED CONCRETE
4.02 AGGREGATES FOR LIGHTWEIGHT CONCRETE The cost of raw aggregates is higher than for gravel, rock, and sand because of small production facilities and the additional processing that is sometimes necessary .
Concrete using lightweight aggregate should not weigh more than 75% of ordinary concrete. Since the aggregates compromise about 50 percent of the usual mixes, its weight should not be more than 50 percent of that of rock or gravel aggregates for the same volume. Grade rock, gravel aggregates weigh a little less than 100 lbs. per cu. ft. thus a good lightweight aggregate should weigh less than 50 lbs. per cubic foot.
4.
PROCESSED CONCRETE
4.02 AGGREGATES FOR LIGHTWEIGHT CONCRETE Lightweight aggregates can be divided into four general classifications : a. Aggregates of volcanic origin Pumice, weighing from 25 to 60 lbs.per cu. ft. is well qualified as a lightweight aggregate when dry and well graded. It is hard to be handled and mixed without excessive breakdown. Undesirable feature, however, is its water absorption. This can be mitigated by wetting the aggregate before it is mixed with cement .
4.
PROCESSED CONCRETE
4.02 AGGREGATES FOR LIGHTWEIGHT CONCRETE a. Aggregates of volcanic origin Perlite is composed of stable silicates, and is inert and thus durable for use as a lightweight aggregate or for insulation. Its disadvantages are its friability, small particle size, and extreme lightness. The small particle size requires more cement, while its lightness, from 8 to 16 lbs. per cu. ft. increases the tendency to float out of the mortar. Perlite is useful where maximum strength is not required, as in precast slabs and blocks and in floor fill, fireproofing and plaster .
4.
PROCESSED CONCRETE
4.02 AGGREGATES FOR LIGHTWEIGHT CONCRETE b. Micaceous minerals Vermiculite is a micaceous mineral which expands on application of heat to as much as 30 times its original volume. Dried ground ore is subjected to about 1,800 degrees heat for 4 to 8 seconds, after which it weighs only 6 to 12 lbs. per cubic ft. It is used as an aggregate in concrete fireproofing steel, for floor and roof fill, and for acoustic and fireproof plaster.
4.
PROCESSED CONCRETE
4.02 AGGREGATES FOR LIGHTWEIGHT CONCRETE c. Expanded shales and clays Lightweight aggregates from shales and clays require heating the material in a kiln to a temperature near its fusion point. The material softens and coalesces to a sticky mass; escaping gases are trapped, forming cellular structures and expanding the volume of the material about 50%. The crushing and firing operations are varied with different processes. In some, the material is fired to a clinker, then crushed and sized; the process is often reversed with crushing operation first. Examples of clay, shale aggregates are AIROX, ROCKLITE, Diatomite, HAYDITE. .
4.
PROCESSED CONCRETE
4.02 AGGREGATES FOR LIGHTWEIGHT CONCRETE d. By-product Aggregates Expanded Slag or foamed slags are made by treating
molten blast furnace slag with controlled quantities of water or steam. Some slags are expanded are expanded in pits in the ground; others are made in machines. Close control of steam is very important because too much granulates the slag, yielding soft, friable particles; too little gives a heavy aggregate.
Foamed slag has been used for precast blocks, cast-inplace walls of houses and for panel filling of steel-framed buildings.
Cinders are composed of the ash components of the coal

along with the various quantities of unburned or partially burned combustible matter. Cinders containing a minimum amount of combustible material are satisfactory for use in concrete but are not particularly weight saving. Lightweight cinders often have unsound physical and chemical properties.
4.
PROCESSED CONCRETE
4.02 AGGREGATES FOR LIGHTWEIGHT CONCRETE WEIGHT OF AGGREGATE AND CONCRETE BY TYPE OF AGGREGATE
TYPE OF AGGREGATE Aggregate Weight per Cubic Foot (Lbs.) 120 90-100 100 80 40-60 40-60 40-50 30-60 28-40 6-16 6-10 Weight per Cubic Foot of Concrete Using Aggregate (Lbs.) 150 150 145 110-130 100-120 90-100 110-115 60-90 55-70 40-65 25-50
Gravel Sand Crushed Stone Crushed Bank Slag Haydite (Expanded Clay, shale) Foamed Slag Cinders Pumice Diatomite Perlite Vermiculite
End of Div 03 CONCRETE

03 Concrete

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03 Concrete

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1. CEMENTING MATERIALS 1.01 Lime 1.02 Gypsum 1.03 Cement 2.

Portland cement is sold in bags of 40 kilos total weight.

CONCRETE DEFINITION Concrete is:

a proportioned mixture of cement, aggregate and water.

when without reinforcement, is called plain or mass concrete.

soundness, or constancy of volume time of setting fineness tensile strength

- The use of sea or brackish water is not allowed.

2,000 2,500 3,000 3,750

7.00 6.50 5.75 5.00

62.0 57.5 51.0 44.5

Plain footings, substructure walls

CONCRETE PROPORTIONING OF CONCRETE

Proportioning by arbitrary proportions

CONCRETE MIXING OF CONCRETE a. MACHINE MIXING

The drum mixers are the most common type.

CONCRETE CURING OF CONCRETE

a. Massive footings b. Cantilever footings c. Slab footings

WALLS AND PLASTERS

a. 2 days (48 hours)

CONCRETE CURING OF CONCRETE

b. Over 7 ft. span

BEAMS AND GIRDERS

BALUSTRADES , COPINGS,ETC. R.C. PILES and R.C. POSTS

CONCRETE FORMS a. LUMBER FORMS

CONCRETE FORMS a. LUMBER FORMS

CONCRETE FORMS a. LUMBER FORMS

CONCRETE FORMS a. LUMBER FORMS

High insulating value is provided by numerous dead air spaces .

Cinders are composed of the ash components of the coal

End of Div 03 CONCRETE

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