Structural Engineering Building Construction Part I

Preparation for Construction Staking-Out the Building Laying the Batterboards Formwork & Shoring Construction Tools &
Equi ment !a"or #arts o$ a Building Foundation Bed Site %n&estigation E'ca&ation & Earthworking Slo e #rotection and (etaining Structures #a&ements
BUILDING CONSTRUCTIO N l
PREPARATION FOR CONSTRUCTION
Preparation for Construction 1.0 Staking-Out the Building 1.1 Laying the Batterboards Formwork & Shoring Construction Tools & Equi ment !a"or #arts o$ a Building Foundation Bed Site %n&estigation Soil mechanics E'ca&ation & Earthworking Site )rainage Slo e #rotection and (etaining Structures #a&ements
1. PREPARATION FOR CONSTRUCTION

1.1 STAKING-OUT THE BUILDING
!efore staking'out it is advisable to go through the process of relocating the point of boundaries and propert% line of the site where the building is to be constructed. Staking-out is the driving o stakes or !atter !oards to "o#ate the #orners and oundations o a !ui"ding or e$#avation. 1. Measure the required setback from the front corner monuments. Drive two stakes and stretch a string between them to represent the front building line. 2. Measure the required side setback from one of the side lot lines along the front building line. Drive stake A which will represent the first corner of the building. From Stake A measure the width of the building and mark with stake ! to obtain the other front corner. ". #stimate right angles from stakes A and ! and measure the length of the building. $n those two points drive two temporar% stakes & and D which will mark the rear corners of the building. &'D should be equal to A'!. (. Draw lines along the diagonals A'D and !'& and ensure that these are equal. ). *ransfer the building lines to batter boards.
Stakes are wooden sticks sed as !osts s"ar!ened at one end dri#en into t"e $ro nd to ser#e as %o ndaries or s !!orts o& t"e %atter %oards. Strin$s are eit"er !'astic cords or $a'#ani(ed wires str n$ across %atter %oards and sed to indicate t"e o t'ine o& t"e % i'din$ wa'' and &o ndation.
Preparation for Construction 1.0 Staking-Out the Building Laying the Batterboards 1.% Formwork & Shoring Construction Tools & Equi ment !a"or #arts o$ a Building Foundation Bed Site %n&estigation Soil mechanics E'ca&ation & Earthworking Site )rainage Slo e #rotection and (etaining Structures #a&ements
1.) LA*ING THE BATTE+BOA+DS

&ATTER &OAR'S + hori,ontal boards + establishes height of the footing trenches and foundations + establishes height of finish floor levels (E)E(IN* + done with a line level or carpenter-s level or with a transit + height of the batter boards ma% be level with or a little higher that the top of the finished foundation.
Batter Boards wood sticks or boards nailed horizontally at the stake which ser e as the horizontal !lane where the re"erence !oint o" the b#ildin$ %eas#re%ents are established&
Preparation for Construction 1.0 Staking-Out the Building Laying the Batterboards 1.% Formwork & Shoring Construction Tools & Equi ment !a"or #arts o$ a Building Foundation Bed Site %n&estigation Soil mechanics E'ca&ation & Earthworking Site )rainage Slo e #rotection and (etaining Structures #a&ements
.otes/ S+irit (eve" 0 an instrument or tool capable of vertical and hori,ontal line check. P"u,! &o! 0 a weight attached to a string used for vertical line check. P"asti# -ose Fi""ed .ith .ater 0 a method of leveling hori,ontall% batter boards without transit. /-0-1 2u"ti+"es .ith the Use o Stee" Ta+e 2easure 0 a manual method of squaring the corners of building lines in staking.
123M! !4!
Preparation for Construction 1.0 Staking-Out the Building Laying the Batterboards Formwork & Shoring 1./ Construction Tools & Equi ment !a"or #arts o$ a Building Foundation Bed Site %n&estigation Soil mechanics E'ca&ation & Earthworking Site )rainage Slo e #rotection and (etaining Structures #a&ements
1., -O+./O+K AND SHO+ING

For,3ork ' used to shape and support fresh concrete until cured and able to support itself. Shoring ' temporar% supports designed to carr% forms for beams and slabs.
F45MS F45 &4.&5#*# &4.S*53&*$4.. Materials used for form construction are/ 1. + %. + + (U2&ER FOR2S should onl% be partiall% seasoned. P(4.OO' FOR2S. used where a smooth surface is required should be waterproof 6rade 7A8 and at least 98 thick. STEE( FOR2S ma% be in the form of pans for concrete :oist construction or steel decking or corrugated steel for concrete slabs and slab'and':oist construction. FI&ER &OAR'S P-ENO(IC &OAR'S
/. +
0. 1.
0"eno'ic resin or !"eno'-&or1a'de"2de resin is a ther%osettin$' water!roo"' low(cost' %old(resistant' hi$h stren$th synthetic resin %ade "ro% !henol and "or%aldehyde) has $ood resistance to a$in$) #sed e*tensi ely in the %an#"act#re o" adhesi es' e*terior and %arine !lywood' la%inated !rod#cts' and %olded articles&
T.O 2A5OR 2ATERIA(S USE' FOR FOR2S AN' S-ORIN* CONSTRUCTION ARE6 718 (U2&ER AN' 7%8 STEE(. 1./.1 (u,!er For,s and Shoring
+ partiall% seasoned and to some e;tent s"ight"9 3et in order to prevent swelling and distortion of the forms< + dressed at "east one side and both edges even for non'e;posed surfaces< + :oints in forms for columns beams and girders made tight b% dressing the lumber true to edge forming square or butt :oints< tight :oints in floor and wall panels obtained b% using tongue'and grooved stock< + si,es of lumber used are/ %-in.sto#k for columns beams and girder bottoms< 1-in. sto#k for floor panels and beam and girder sides< %$0s for struts posts shores and uprights< 1 or %-in#h sto#k for cleats<
+ #rude oi" and +etro"ine are used to
prevent concrete from adhering to the wood and preserve the forms against damage b% alternate wetting and dr%ing< on forms against surfaces which are to be plastered wetting with water will be sufficient since oiling prevents adhesion of the plaster< + 3ire ties or !o"ts and rods are used to hold wall forms together< rods are preferred and should be arranged that upon removal of the forms no metal shall be within one inch of an% surface< wire ties should be used onl% on light and unimportant work where discoloring will not be ob:ectionable< + pl%wood forms used where a smooth surface is required< should be 3ater+roo *rade :A; and at "east <; thi#k.
P(4.OO' FOR2S =nee !race =icker 2edger !locking Stringers ?ack Metal or >ood ?oists
!raced *' and 2'heads Single 1ost >ood Shore .OO' S-ORIN* Sills
Ad:ustable Metal Shores !racing
2ETA( S-ORIN*
CO(U2N FOR2S >44D F45M>45=S 5eusable forms ma% have a square or rectangular cross section 4O=ES are clamping devices for keeping column forms and tops of wall forms from spreading under the fluid pressure of newl% placed concrete .A(( FOR2S SPREA'ERS usuall% of wood space and keep the wall or forms apart FOR2 TIES P(4.OO' S-EAT-IN* -ORI>ONTA( .A(ERS .OO' STU'S S$22 12A*# !5A&$.6
FOR2 TIES SNAP TIES have notches or crimps that allow their ends to be snapped off below the concrete surface after stripping off the forms small truncated cones of wood steel or plastic attached to form ties to space and spread wall forms leave a neatl% finished depression in the concrete surface to be filled or left e;posed
S-E &O(TS consist of 3a"er rods that are inserted through the form and threaded onto the ends of an inner rod. After stripping the waler rods are removed for reuse while the inner rod remains in the concrete
a variet% of wedges and slotted devices tighten the formwork and transfer the force in a form tie to the walers
1./.% Stee" For,s and Shoring Shoring is also used to support scaffolding works. S#a o"ds are temporar% platforms designed to support workers and materials on the face of a structure and to provide access to work areas above the ground. An% elevated platform is called a scaffold.
*he ma:or components of metal shoring are/ a@ *he "edger or the hori,ontal brace b@ *he !ra#e or the diagona". *his component ma% be of the ad:ustable and the fi;ed t%pe. c@ *he standard or the vertical component. d@ Accessories/ heads? @a#ks and !ases.
SHO+ING 3O.0ONENTS
Standards
(edgers
Ad@usta!"e &ra#es
Fi$ed &ra#es
SHO+ING 3O.0ONENTS
Ra+idshor -eads Ad@usta!"e 5a#ks
&ase A Ti"t &ase
Preparation for Construction 1.0
SHO+ING ASSE.BL* INST+U3TIONS
Staking-Out the Building Laying the Batterboards Formwork & Shoring 1./ Construction Tools & Equi ment !a"or #arts o$ a Building Foundation Bed Site %n&estigation 1. Ensure the ground and s"ee+ers are Soil mechanics adeBuate"9 +re+ared? and the !ase? @a#ks E'ca&ation & Earthworking and standards are in #orre#t +ositions. Site )rainage Slo e #rotection and (etaining Structures #a&ements
%. Asse,!"e to3er o 0 standards and "edgers. Fi$ !ra#es to sta!i"iCe.
/. (oose"9 it the re,aining #o,+onents unti" ,a@orit9 o irst "eve" #o,+"ete. Che#k standards or verti#a"it9 and tighten "edgers.
0. Position s#a o"d !oards and "adders.
1. Additiona" "edgers and !ra#es #an no3 !e added? 3ith additiona" !ra#es.
D. On#e a"" "eve"s are #o,+"ete? @a#ks and heads #an no3 !e +ositioned.
E. 5a#k head "eve"s ina"iCed and an9 @a#k !ra#ing reBuired is no3 itted.
F. Pri,ar9 !ea,s #an !e +ositioned? #"a,+ed and "eve"s #he#ked.
G. Se#ondar9 !ea,s #an !e +ositioned and #"a,+ed to +ri,ar9 !ea,s? +"93ood de#king to o""o3.
Preparation for Construction 1.0 Staking-Out the Building Laying the Batterboards Formwork & Shoring Construction Tools & Equi ment 1.0 !a"or #arts o$ a Building Foundation Bed Site %n&estigation Soil mechanics E'ca&ation & Earthworking Site )rainage Slo e #rotection and (etaining Structures #a&ements
1.0 CONSTRUCTION TOO(S A EHUIP2ENT

*ools and equipment emplo%ed in construction are grouped into four/ 1. Hand Too's are the tools that use power delivered b% man onl%. 2. 0ower Too's are those that emplo% power supplied b% forces other than that coming from humans. ". E4 i!1ent is a term that refers to large comple; tools and machines that is designed to do a particular :ob. (. -eav9 EBui+,ent is equipment which is ver% large and ver% powerful.
1. -and Too"s
A +r9 !ar is used to force open boards used in forming concrete. Measurement and la%out tools are the following/ a. Fo"ding ru"e and tape measure are the most common tools for measuring boards pipe wire etc. b. 'igita" ru"e is used to measure relativel% long distances such as those in highwa% construction.
c. Fra,ing sBuare is a la%out tool that is used to measure AB' degree angles at the corners of framework and :oints. *he% can also be emplo%ed to determine cutting angles on dimension lumber. d. (eve" is a long straight tool that contains one or more vials of liquid and used to determine if the hori,ontal or vertical is e;act. e. Cha"k "ine or chalk bo; is used for marking lines.
T9+es o ha,,ers are the o""o3ing6 a. C"a3 ha,,er is an ordinar% hammer used to drive or remove nails.
*%pes of screwdrivers are/ a. Standard s#re3driver has a flat tip and is designed to fit a standard slotted screw.
b. Phi""i+s s#re3driver has an C'shaped tip and is used to turn 1hillips'head screws onl%. b. S"edgeha,,er is a heav% hammer used to drive stakes into the ground and to break up concrete and stone. c. S+ira" rat#het s#re3driver is that which relies on a pushing force rather than a twisting force.
T9+es o handsa3s are the o""o3ing6 a. Ri+sa3 has chisel'like teeth designed for ripping or cutting with the grain of wood. c. &a#ksa3 is a special t%pe of handsaw that has a ver% thin blade and makes ver% straight cuts such as those on trims and mouldings.
b. Cross#ut sa3 is used to cut across the grain of wood. d. -a#ksa3 is used to cut metals.
T9+es o Chise"s6 a. .ood #hise" is used to trim wood and clear awa% e;cess material from wood :oints.
b. Pi+e 3ren#h is used to turn round ob:ects like pipes.
b. Co"d #hise" is used to trim metals.
c. &ri#k tro3e" is used to place and trim mortar between bricks or concrete blocks. d. &u"" "oat is used to smoothen out the surface of wet concrete.
*%pes of speciali,ed hand tools are the following/ a. Nai" set is used to drive finishing nails below the surface of a wooden trim or molding.
e. &"ind riveter is used to fasten pieces of sheet metal together.
%. Po3er Too"s
Po3er dri"" is used to drill holes in wood metal and concrete. Po3er s#re3driver or s#re3gun is used to install and remove screws. T9+es o +o3er sa3s are the o""o3ing6 a. Radia" ar, sa3 is used for crosscutting wood and consists of a motor'driven saw blade that is hung on an arm over a table.
Radia" ar, sa3. Po3er dri"".
b. Ta!"e sa3 is used for cutting large sheets of wood and wood composites and consists of a blade mounted on an electric motor beneath a table'like surface. c. Porta!"e #ir#u"ar sa3 is used for cutting materials that are difficult to cut with stationar% tools.
Ta!"e sa3.
Po3er s#re3driver.
Porta!"e #ir#u"ar sa3.
d. Po3er ,iter sa3 is a circular saw mounted over a small table used to cut various angles in wood. Po3er ,iter sa3. e. Sa!er sa3 is used to cut curves or holes in floors and roofs for pipes and has a small knife' shaped blade that moves up and down.
Sa!er sa3.
T9+e o +o3er ha,,ers are6 a. Pneu,ati# ha,,er or :ackhammer is used to break up concrete or asphalt paving.
T9+e o +o3er nai"ers and sta+"ers are the o""o3ing6 a. Nai"ers or nai" guns fasten materials together b% shooting nails into the building material.
Pneu,ati# ha,,er.
Pneu,ati# nai"er
b. Rotar9 ha,,er is like an electric drill that operates with both rotating and reciprocating actions and is used to drill holes in concrete.
b. Po3der-a#tuated stud driver is a kind of nailer that is powered b% gunpowder and is used to drive long pins into wood steel or concrete. c. Sta+"ers are like nailers but are loaded with u' shaped staples instead of nails for fastening.
Po3der-a#tuated stud driver.
Rotar9 ha,,er.
Sta+"er.
/. EBui+,ent
Conve9or is an equipment which moves materials other than fluids.
T9+es o surve9ing eBui+,ent6 a. Transit is an equipment used b% surve%ors to measure hori,ontal and vertical angles to obtain land elevation. b. Surve9orIs "eve" is that which is used to determine an unidentified elevation from a known one.
Surve9ors "eve".
Transit.
Conve9ors are used or trans+orting ,ateria"s unto "arge roo s.
c. Constru#tion "aser flashes a narrow accurate beam of light to make a baseline for additional measurements and is used as a level or as an alignment tool.
Constru#tion "aser.
T9+es o +u,+s are6 a. .ater +u,+ is used to pump water out of holes in the ground so that construction work can commence.
Con#rete +u,+.
b. Con#rete +u,+ is used to move concrete from the concrete mi;er to the concrete form.
.ater +u,+.
Con#rete 2i$er 7Ce,ent 2i$er8 A machine that mi;es concrete ingredients b% means of a rotating drum. 5aw materials are introduced into the mi;ing drum through its open end and discharged b% tilting the mi;ing drum to allow the concrete to pour out.
T9+es o 3e"ding ,a#hines are the o""o3ing6 a. Ar# 3e"ding ,a#hine is used to weld materials b% melting portions of the metal.
b. (aser-+o3ered 3e"der is used to weld material b% emplo%ing a laser to heat the metal.
Ar# 3e"ding ,a#hine.
.e"d ,ade !9 a "aser+o3ered 3e"der.
0. -eav9 EBui+,ent
&u""doCer is a tractor with a pushing blade which moves earth and clears land of bushes and trees.
a. Cra3"er #rane is a crane mounted on metal treads so that it can move over rough terrain.
&u""doCer.
Cranes are machines that lift large and heav% materials. *he t%pes of cranes are/
b. Tru#k #rane is mounted on a truck frame so that it can be driven in the site. c. To3er #rane or climbing crane is used in the construction of tall building because it has a built'in :ack that raises the crane from floor to floor as the building is constructed.
D00- oot #rane.
E$#avator is a machine used for digging or scooping earth from a place and depositing it in another. T9+es o e$#avators are6 a. &a#khoe is used for general digging which is usuall% mounted on either a crawler or truck frame. b. Tren#her is a special kind which digs trenches or long narrow ditches for pipelines or cables. c. Front-end "oader is a large shoveling machine that can scoop or deposit a large amount of material.
&a#khoe.
Tren#her-e$#avator.
Front-end "oader.
-igh3a9 #onstru#tion eBui+,ent are6 a. S#ra+er is a machine that loads hauls and dumps soil over medium to long distances. b. *rader is an earthworking machine that grades or levels the ground. c. Co,+a#tor or ro""er is a machine that compacts soil to prepare for road paving. d. Paver is a machine that places spreads and finishes concrete or asphalt paving material.
Co,+a#tor
S#ra+er.
*rader.
Preparation for Construction 1.0 Staking-Out the Building Laying the Batterboards Formwork & Shoring Construction Tools & Equi ment !a"or #arts o$ a Building 1.1 Foundation Bed Site %n&estigation Soil mechanics E'ca&ation & Earthworking Site )rainage Slo e #rotection and (etaining Structures #a&ements
1.5 .A6O+ 0A+TS O- A BUILDING

*he ma:or parts of a building are/
1. %. Su+erstru#ture 0 the portion of the building above the ground. Su!stru#ture 0 the habitable portion of the building found below the ground. Foundation 0 the structural portion of the building that transfer the buildings load into the soil. The three t9+es o su!stru#tures are6 1. S"a! on Fi"" 0 slab which rests on ground and not suspended. %. Cra3" S+a#e 0 in a building without a basement an unfinished accessible space below the first floor which is usuall% less than a full stor% height. /. &ase,ent 0 the lower stor% of a building either partl% or entirel% below grade.
SUPERSTRUCTURE
/.
SU&STRUCTURE FOUN'ATION
&ASE2ENT
CRA.( SPACE
S(A& ON FI((
Preparation for Construction 1.0 Staking-Out the Building Laying the Batterboards Formwork & Shoring Construction Tools & Equi ment !a"or #arts o$ a Building Foundation Bed 1.D Site %n&estigation Soil mechanics E'ca&ation & Earthworking Site )rainage Slo e #rotection and (etaining Structures #a&ements
1.D FOUN'ATION &E'

*he word 7&o ndation8 is applied to/
1. Constru#tion !e"o3 grade such as footing courses basement walls etc. forming the lower section of a structure< 2. *he natura" ,ateria" the particular part of the earth-s surface on which the construction rests< ". S+e#ia" #onstru#tion such as piling or piers used to transmit the loads of the building to firm substrata.
Preparation for Construction Staking-Out the Building Laying the Batterboards Formwork & Shoring Construction Tools & Equi ment !a"or #arts o$ a Building Foundation Bed 1.D Site %n&estigation Soil mechanics E'ca&ation & Earthworking Site )rainage Slo e #rotection and (etaining Structures #a&ements
Foundation !ed ' the natural material on which the construction rests Foundation 3a""s ' that part of the building foundation which forms the permanent retaining wall of the structure below grade. Foundation +iersJ#o"u,ns 0 piersDcolumns below grade to distinguish them from similar construction above grade *rade &ea, ' that part of a foundation s%stem which supports the e;terior wall of the superstructure and bears directl% on the column footing. Footing #ourses ' lower portions of walls piers or columns which are spread to provide a safe base
CONCRETE FOUN'ATION .A((S
CONCRETE 2ASONR4 FOUN'ATION .A((S
FOOTIN*
FOUN'ATION .A((
1.9.1 T*0ES O- -OUNDATION BEDS Foundation beds ma% be classified as follows/
1. Ro#k 7so"id ro#k? !edro#k or "edge8. 3ndisturbed rock masses forming an undisturbed part of the original rock'formation. Some e;amples of harder rocks are granite slate sandstone and limestone which are all capable of carr%ing the load of an% ordinar% structure. #;amples of softer rocks are shale shale% slates and certain marle% limestone and cla% stones. 2. 'e#a9ed ro#k 7rotten ro#k8. Sand cla%s and other materials resulting from the disintegration of rock masses lacking the coherent qualities but occup%ing the space formerl% occupied b% the original rock. ". (oose ro#k. 5ock masses detached from the ledge of which the% originall% formed a part. (. *rave". Detached rock particles generall% water'worn rounded and intermediate in si,e between sand particles and boulders. ). &ou"ders. Detached rock masses larger than gravel generall% rounded and worn as a result of having been transported b% water a considerable distance from the ledges of which the% originall% formed a part.
E. Sand. .on'coherent rock particles smaller than F8 in ma;imum dimension. G. C"a9. A plastic material resulting from the decomposition and h%dration of feldspathic rocks being h%drated silicate of alumina generall% mi;ed with powdered feldspar quart, and other materials. H. -ard-+an. An% strong coherent mi;ture of cla% or other cementing material with sand gravel and boulders. A. Si"t. A finel% divided earth% material deposited from running water. 1B. 2ud. Finel% divided earth% material generall% containing vegetable matter and deposited from still or slowl% moving water. 11. 2ou"d. #arth% material containing a large proportion of humus or vegetable matter. 12. (oa,. #arth% material containing a proportion of vegetable matter. 1". Peat. &ompressed and partiall% carboni,ed vegetable matter. 1(. Fi""ed *round. All artificial fills and some natural fills are liable to a more or less uniform but continuous settlement or shrinkage due to the gradual consolidation of the material of which the fill is composed
1.D.% A((O.A&(E (OA'S ON FOUN'ATION &E'S Thorough investigation is required before one can determine the allowable unit load on the foundation bed. >hen material and conditions are uniform over the entire site of the building a uniform unit load ma% be used. $n cases when entirel% different conditions e;ist under different portions of the same building the unit load on the foundation bed must be reduced as much as possible so as to reduce the differences in settlements between the two sections of the building to a minimum.
Preparation for Construction 1.0 Staking-Out the Building Laying the Batterboards Formwork & Shoring Construction Tools & Equi ment !a"or #arts o$ a Building Foundation Bed Site %n&estigation 1.E Soil mechanics E'ca&ation & Earthworking Site )rainage Slo e #rotection and (etaining Structures #a&ements
1.: SITE IN;ESTIGATION

!efore an% design is made the architect is required to get as much valuable data about site e;cavation and building erection at the pro:ect site in order to determine the character of the materials which will be encountered at the level of a foundation bed. 1.:.1 .ETHODS OE<0LO+ATION
1. Test !its. For shallow work an open pit is the most suitable method since it calls for an actual inspection of the undisturbed material over a considerable area. 2. Test %orin$s. For e;cavations that are carried no deeper than the proposed level the underl%ing material ma% be investigated b% test boring.
Soi" &oring Rig.
SPT Sa,+"e.
1.:.) LOADING TESTS

2oading tests of the materials forming the foundation bed are made to assist in determining its safe bearing capacit%.
Preparation for Construction 1.0 Staking-Out the Building Laying the Batterboards Formwork & Shoring Construction Tools & Equi ment !a"or #arts o$ a Building Foundation Bed Site %n&estigation Soil mechanics 1.F E'ca&ation & Earthworking Site )rainage Slo e #rotection and (etaining Structures #a&ements
1.= SOIL .E3HANI3S

1.F.1 C(ASSES OF SOI( *here are two broad classes of soil/
A. Course-grained soi" K consist of relativel% large particles visible to the naked e%es.
&. Fine-grained soi" K consist of much smaller particles such as silt and cla%.
1.F.% C-ARACTERISTICS OF SOI(

SOI( C(ASSIFICATION S42&O( 'ESCRIPTION PRESU2PTI)E &EARIN* CAPACIT4 PER2EA&I(IT4 AN' 'RAINA*E
+s
kPa
*rave"s
D.0 K ED.%,,
3'ean Gra#e's
*. *P
.e""-graded grave" Poor"9 graded grave" Si"t9 *rave" C"a9e9 *rave" .e""-graded sand Poor"9 graded sand Si"t9 Sand C"a9e9 Sand Inorgani# Si"t Inorgani# C"a9 Organi# Si"t-C"a9 E"asti# inorgani# si"t P"asti# inorgani# #"a9 Organi# #"a9 A si"t Peat
10000 10000 1000 0000 E100 D000 0000 0000 %000 %000
0EG 0EG %/G 1G% /1G %FE 1G% 1G% GD GD
E$#e""ent E$#e""ent Poor Poor E$#e""ent E$#e""ent Fair Poor Poor I,+ervious I,+ervious Poor I,+ervious I,+ervious Poor
Gra#e's wit" &ines Sands

0.01 K D.0,,
*2 *C S. SP S2 SC 2( C(
3'ean Sands Sands wit" &ines
Si"ts
0.00%-0.01,,
((L10M
C"a9s
N0.00%,,
((N10M
O( 2COPt
)er9 +oor %000 %000 )er9 +oor unsuita!"e GD GD
1.F./ STA&I(IT4 AN' STREN*T- OF SOI( &E' is defined b% the following criteria/ A. Allowable !earing &apacit% 0 ma;imum unit pressure a
foundation is permitted to impose verticall% or laterall% on the soil mass. !. Densit% 0 the critical factor determining the bearing capacit% of granular soils.
S1* ' Standard 1enetration *est

' measures the densit% of granular soils and the consistenc% of some cla%s ' records the number of blows required b% a hammer to advance a standard soil sampler.
MDD ' Ma;imum Dr% Densit%

' Dr% densit% is the densit% of soil or the like after it has been heated at a temperature of 221 deg F I1B) deg &@ to a dr% condition. &. Shearing Strength 0 measure of the abilit% to resist displacement when an e;ternal force is applied due largel% to the combined effects of cohesion and internal friction. D. >ater *able 0 level beneath which the soil is saturated with groundwater.
Preparation for Construction 1.0 Staking-Out the Building Laying the Batterboards Formwork & Shoring Construction Tools & Equi ment !a"or #arts o$ a Building Foundation Bed Site %n&estigation Soil mechanics E'ca&ation & Earthworking 1.G Site )rainage Slo e #rotection and (etaining Structures #a&ements
1.> E<3A;ATION AND EA+TH/O+KING

*hese processes entail the following/ 1. E?ca#atin$ is the process of digging the earth to provide a place for the foundation of the building. 2. Le#e'in$ and Gradin$ are processes that change land elevation and slope b% filling in low spots and shaving off high spots. ". Sta%i'i(in$ t"e Soi' is the process of compacting the soil on which the structure will rest. (. T"e !rotection o& ad@oinin$ str ct re is a law that provides that an% person making an e;cavation is responsible for resulting damage to ad:oining propert%.
). S"orin$ is a process of transferring a portion of the load of the wall to temporar% footings and done when the e;cavation does not go much below the ad:oining footings and when the material is fairl% solid.
$t consists of the following members/ a@ s"eet !i'es? which are timber steel or pre'cast planks driven side b% side to retain earth and prevent water from seeping into the e;action and b@ wa'es or continuous hori,ontal beams which tie the sheet piles in place or c@ so'dier !i'es? which are steel J'sections driven verticall% into the ground to support d@ 'a$$in$ or heav% timber planks :oined together hori,ontall% to retain the face of an e;cavation. e@ cross%racin$ or rakers are diagonals which support the wales and soldier piles bearing on "ee' %'ocks or footings. f@ tie%acks secured to rock or soil anchors are resorted to when crossbracing or rakers would interfere with the e;cavation procedure.
S-EET PI(IN*
SO('IER PI(ESJ&EA2S IS*##2 J'S#&*$4.S@ (A**IN* refers to the heav% timber planks :oined together side b% side to retain the face of an e;cavation
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E. Need'in$ and nder!innin$ is a process where needles or girders are used in cases where part or all of the weight of the wall has to be carried as when the old footing is removed and the wall underpinned or carried down to a new footing at a greater depth.
NEE'(IN*
NEE'(E< a short beam passed through a wall as a temporar% support while the foundation or part beneath is repaired altered or strengthened 'EA' S-ORE< an upright timber for supporting a dead load during the structural alteration of a building esp. one of two supports for a needle
G. Dewaterin$ refers to the process of lowering a water table or preventing an e;cavation from filling with groundwater. $t is accomplished b% driving perforated tubes called wellpoints into the ground to collect water from the surrounding area so it can be pumped awa%.
'E.ATERIN*
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Preparation for Construction 1.0 Staking-Out the Building Laying the Batterboards Formwork & Shoring Construction Tools & Equi ment !a"or #arts o$ a Building Foundation Bed Site %n&estigation Soil mechanics E'ca&ation & Earthworking Site )rainage 1.10 Slo e #rotection and (etaining Structures #a&ements
1.10 SITE 'RAINA*E

- ne#essar9 to +revent erosion and #o""e#tion o e$#ess sur a#e 3ater or ground3ater resu"ting ro, ne3 #onstru#tion.
Sur a#e .ater 0 1. 2. 5ainfall which runs over the surface of the ground. >ater carried b% an aggregate e;cept that held b% absorption within the aggregate particles themselves. *round3ater K >ater near the surface of the ground which passes through the subsoil.
&ASIC T4PES OF SITE 'RAINA*E

A. SU&-SURFACE 'RAINA*E K consists of an underground network of piping for conve%ing groundwater to a point of disposal as a storm sewer s%stem or a natural outfall at a lower elevation on the site. #;cess groundwater can reduce the load' carr%ing capacit% of a foundation soil and increase the h%drostatic pressure on a building foundation. >aterproofing is required for basement structures situated close to or below the water table of a site.
Co,+onents o the su!-sur a#e drainage s9ste, are6 Cat#h &asins receptacles for the runoff of surface water. *he% have a basin or sump that retains heav% sediment before it can pass into an underground drainpipe. Cu"verts are drains or channels passing under a road or walkwa%.
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Foundation drainage ti"e or +i+e *ile or piping for the collection of sub' surface water dispersion of septic tank effluent and the like. 'rainage ti"e is a hollow tile usuall% laid end to end as piping Iwith open :oints@ in soil in order to drain water saturated soil or used to permit fluid in the hollow'tile pipe to disperse into the ground Ias in an absorption field@.
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&.SURFACE 'RAINA*E
refers to the grading and surfacing of a site in order to divert rain and other surface water into natural drainage patterns or a municipal storm sewer s%stem. *rass and "a3n areas are s"o+ed 1.1O to 10OP 3hi"e +aved +arking areas? %O to /O. A holding pond ma% be necessar% when the amount of surface runoff e;ceeds the capacit% of the storm sewer s%stem. &omponents of the surface drainage s%stem are/
S3a"es shallow depressions formed b% the intersection of two ground slopes designed to direct or divert the runoff of surface water. 6rass swales slope 1.)L to 2L< while paved swales (L to EL.
S.A(ES
Area 'rain receptacle designed to collect surface water or rainwater from an open area.
'r9 .e""s are drainage pits lined with gravel or rubble to receive surface water and allow it to percolate awa% to absorbent earth underground. Also called an absorbing well.
A!sor+tion Fie"d or 'is+osa" Fie"d a s%stem of trenches containing coarse aggregate and distribution pipes through which septic'tank effluent ma% seep into the surrounding soil. A!sor+tion Tren#h a trench containing coarse aggregate and a distribution tile pipe through which septic'tank effluent ma% flow covered with earth.
D5M >#22
Ponds and 2arshes designed catchments areas for surface water.

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Preparation for Construction 1.0 Staking-Out the Building Laying the Batterboards Formwork & Shoring Construction Tools & Equi ment !a"or #arts o$ a Building Foundation Bed Site %n&estigation Soil mechanics E'ca&ation & Earthworking Site )rainage Slo e #rotection and (etaining Structures 1.11 #a&ements
1.11 SLO0E 0+OTE3TION AND +ETAINING ST+U3TU+ES

1. *he need for stabili,ing a sloping ground can be reduced b% diverting the runoff at the top of the slope or b% #reating a series o terra#es to reduce the velocit% of the runoff.
2. .atural means of stabili,ation include soi' %inders ''' plant materials that inhibit or prevent erosion b% providing a ground cover and forming a dense network of roots that bind the soil.
". +i!ra! is a la%er of irregularl% broken and random'si,ed stones placed on the slope of an embankment.
5$15A1 Depth of la%er should be greater than the ma;imum si,e of stone F$2*#5 FA!5$& or 65AD#D SA.D and 65AK#2 for drainage
(. 3ri%%in$ is a cellular framework of squared steel concrete or timber members assembled in la%ers at right angles and filled with earth or stones. ). A Bin /a'' is a t%pe of gravit% retaining wall formed b% stacking modular interlocking pre' cast concrete units and filling the voids with crushed stone or gravel.
E. Ga%ions are galvani,ed or 1K& coated wire baskets filled with stones and stacked to form an abutment or retaining structure.
6A!$4.S Filter fabric or graded sand and gravel for drainage
G. +etainin$ Str ct res. >hen a desired change in ground elevation e;ceeds the angle of repose of the soil a retaining wall becomes necessar% to hold the mass of earth on the uphill side of the grade change. *he t%pes of 5& retaining walls are as follows/ a@ Gra#it2 +etainin$ /a'' ' resists overturning and sliding b% the sheer weight and volume of its mass.
B.) J
1B8 I2))@
b@ T-t2!e 3anti'e#ered +etainin$ /a'' 0 limited to a height of 2B- IE M@< be%ond this height a counterfort wall is emplo%ed.
H8 I2B)@ &atter refers to backward sloping face of a wall as it rises to offset illusion of face leaning forward *emperature steel for walls more than 1B8 I2))@ thick B.EJ IB.AJ wD surcharge@ Drainage mat wD filter fabric or porous gravel backfill 28 I)1 mm@ o weepholes N (-'E- I122B'1H"Bmm@ o.c. or perforated drainpipe sloped to outlet awa% from wall
28 I)1@ min "8 IG)@ min Structural Steel reinforcement Footing should e;tend below the frostline or 2- IE1Bmm@ below the grade level whichever is higher
c@ 3o nter&ort +etainin$ /a''0 utili,es triangular'shaped cross walls to stiffen the vertical slab and add weight to the base. *he counterforts are spaced at equal intervals equal to one'half the wall height.
d@ L-t2!e 3anti'e#ered +etainin$ /a'' K used when the wall abuts a propert% line or other obstruction.
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Preparation for Construction 1.0 Staking-Out the Building Laying the Batterboards Formwork & Shoring Construction Tools & Equi ment !a"or #arts o$ a Building Foundation Bed Site %n&estigation Soil mechanics E'ca&ation & Earthworking Site )rainage Slo e #rotection and (etaining Structures #a&ements 1.1%
1.1%
PA)E2ENTS
Paving provides a wearing surface for pedestrian or vehicular traffic in the landscape. $t is a composite structure whose thickness and construction are directl% related to/ + t%pe and intensit% of traffic and loads to be carried + bearing capacit% and permeabilit% of the subgrade 1.1%.1 T4PES OF PA)E2ENTS 1. F"e$i!"e Pave,ents 0 consists of unit pavers of concrete brick or stone laid on a sand setting bed are somewhat resilient and distribute loads to the subgrade in a radiating manner. 5equires wood steel stone masonr% or concrete edging to restrain hori,ontal movement.
F(EQI&(E PA)E2ENTS
%. Rigid Pave,ents 0 are reinforced concrete slabs or paving units mortared over a concrete slab distribute the loads internall% and transfer them to subgrade over a broad area. 5equires reinforcement and an e;tension of the base material along their edges. 1.1%.% T4PES OF PA)ERS
RI*I' PA)E2ENTS
1.1%./ PA)IN* PATTERNS
1.1%.0 PA)IN* 'ETAI(S
Preparation for Construction Staking-Out the Building Laying the Batterboards Formwork & Shoring Construction Tools & Equi ment !a"or #arts o$ a Building Foundation Bed Site %n&estigation E'ca&ation & Earthworking Slo e #rotection and (etaining Structures #a&ements
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END

Structural Engineering Building Construction Part I

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Structural Engineering Building Construction Part I

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Preparation for Construction Staking-Out the Building Laying the Batterboards Formwork & Shoring Construction Tools &

1. PREPARATION FOR CONSTRUCTION

1.) LA*ING THE BATTE+BOA+DS

1., -O+./O+K AND SHO+ING

Ad:ustable Metal Shores !racing

&ase A Ti"t &ase

Preparation for Construction 1.0

SHO+ING ASSE.BL* INST+U3TIONS

%. Asse,!"e to3er o 0 standards and "edgers. Fi$ !ra#es to sta!i"iCe.

0. Position s#a o"d !oards and "adders.

F. Pri,ar9 !ea,s #an !e +ositioned? #"a,+ed and "eve"s #he#ked.

1.0 CONSTRUCTION TOO(S A EHUIP2ENT

b. Pi+e 3ren#h is used to turn round ob:ects like pipes.

b. Co"d #hise" is used to trim metals.

e. &"ind riveter is used to fasten pieces of sheet metal together.

Porta!"e #ir#u"ar sa3.

Po3der-a#tuated stud driver.

Conve9ors are used or trans+orting ,ateria"s unto "arge roo s.

Ar# 3e"ding ,a#hine.

.e"d ,ade !9 a "aser+o3ered 3e"der.

1.5 .A6O+ 0A+TS O- A BUILDING

1.D FOUN'ATION &E'

CONCRETE 2ASONR4 FOUN'ATION .A((S

1.9.1 T*0ES O- -OUNDATION BEDS Foundation beds ma% be classified as follows/

1.: SITE IN;ESTIGATION

Soi" &oring Rig.

1.:.) LOADING TESTS

1.= SOIL .E3HANI3S

1.F.% C-ARACTERISTICS OF SOI(

0EG 0EG %/G 1G% /1G %FE 1G% 1G% GD GD

Gra#e's wit" &ines Sands

3'ean Sands Sands wit" &ines

)er9 +oor %000 %000 )er9 +oor unsuita!"e GD GD

S1* ' Standard 1enetration *est

MDD ' Ma;imum Dr% Densit%

1.> E<3A;ATION AND EA+TH/O+KING

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1.10 SITE 'RAINA*E

&ASIC T4PES OF SITE 'RAINA*E

Ponds and 2arshes designed catchments areas for surface water.

1.11 SLO0E 0+OTE3TION AND +ETAINING ST+U3TU+ES

B.GJ I1.2) wD surcharge@ B.EJ I1.B wD surcharge@

1.1%./ PA)IN* PATTERNS

1.1%.0 PA)IN* 'ETAI(S

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