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Mechanical Methods
A. MECHANICAL METHODS Choice of Method Purpose Compaction Shallow Surface Compaction Deep Compaction - Dynamic Consolidation - Vibro Compaction - Vibro replacement
CHOICE
OF METHOD - Type & degree of improvement required - Type of soil, geological structure - Cost - Available equipment - Time - Damage to adjacent structures - Durability (whole life considerations)
PURPOSE
- Increase shear strength - Reduce compressibility - Reduce liquefaction - Control swelling/ shrinkage - Prolong durability
1-Compaction
What is compaction?
A simple ground improvement technique, where the soil is densified through external compactive effort.
Compactive effort
+ water =
- to obtain the compaction curve and define the optimum water content and maximum dry density for a specific compactive effort.
hammer
Modified Proctor:
5 layers
300 mm drop
450 mm drop
Compaction - Procedure
1
2 4 5
d, max
- low permeability
Water content
10
Compaction Effect
Air
Water Solids
Loose soil
Air
Water Solids
Compacted soil
S<100%
Gs w Eq : d 1 wGs
S>100% (impossible)
All compaction points should lie to the left of ZAV curve
Water content
12
E2 (>E1)
E1
Water content
13
Higher water content or higher compactive effort gives more dispersed fabric.
Water content
14
Line of optimum
Water content
15
Filed Compaction
Different types of rollers (clockwise from right):
Smooth-wheel roller Vibratory roller
Compaction Advantages
As compaction increases, the following occurs:
Increase soil strength Increase bearing capacity Decrease potential for settlement Control undesirable volume changes Reduction in hydraulic conductivity
Bottom from left: Smooth-wheeled roller, power rammer and sheepsfoot roller.
Field Compaction
Smooth Wheeled Roller
Compacts effectively only to 200-300 mm; therefore, place the soil in shallow layers (lifts)
19
Field Compaction
Vibrating Plates
Field Compaction
Sheepsfoot Roller
Provides kneading action; walks out after compaction Very effective on clays
21
Field Compaction
Impact Roller
Type of Plant
Grid roller
Suitability
Unsuitable
Smooth-wheeled roller Well graded sand and gravels; Uniform sands; silty silts and clays of low plasticity. sands; soft clays.
Well graded sand and gravels; Uniform sands; silty soft rocks; stony cohesive sands; soft clays. soils Sands and gravels with more than 20 % fines; most fine grained soils Most coarse-grained and finegrained soils Sands and gravels with no fines; wet cohesive soils Soils with up to 12 15 % fines; confined areas. Trench backfill; work in small areas or where access is restricted. Very coarse-grained soils; gravels without fines. Very soft clay; soils of highly variable consistency Silts and clays; soils with 5 % or more fines; dry soils. Large-volume work Large-volume work
Sheepsfoot roller
Pneumatic-tyred roller
Vibrating roller
d,field = ? wfield = ?
compacted ground
Dynamic Compaction
In-Situ Improvements
Dynamic Compaction
Dynamic Compaction
- pounding the ground by a heavy weight
Suitable for granular soils, land fills and karst terrain with sink holes. solution cavities in limestone
Pounder (Tamper)
2-Dynamic Compaction
Existing surface or near surface soil is poor Repeatedly dropping heavy weight From high distance Wrecking ball or designed mass weight Typical weight range: 2 to 20 ton or higher Typical dropping distance: 10 to 40 meters Heavier the weight greater the dropping distance and greater the compaction effort
Dynamic Compaction Applications - Reduce foundation settlements - Reduce seismic subsidence - Permit construction on fills - Densify garbage dumps - Improve mine spoils - Induce settlements in collapsible soils
Dynamic Compaction
Used for cohesive and cohesionless soils Compacting buried refuse Not done by dropping weight randomly Closely spaced grid pattern Preliminary work done to determine: Grid spacing Weight Height Number of drops (typ. 5 to 10 drops per grid point)
Dynamic Compaction
Applicable
Loose sands, fills, mine refuse, collapsible soil and sanitary landfills Up to depths of 40-feet Not typically used in urban areas 25-50 meters clearance to any structure GWT > 6 below grade or 2 below bottom of craters
Dynamic Compaction
Advantages
Relatively inexpensive
Disadvantages
Extremely invasive Multiple passes required / progressive consolidation Granular fill to stabilize loose surface soils Too many drops may cause adjacent heave Requires careful monitoring
Dynamic Compaction
Practical Considerations
Drops from 10-40 meters Weight 40(+) tons; shape doesnt matter Stratographic profiling for tamping pattern Max economic limit = 10 drops/location Requires horizontal pumps or drains Vibration sensitivity analysis recommended Crane Safety Program
Important Terms Effective Depth -- Maximum depth of ground improvement Zone of Major Densification -- About upper 2/3 of effective depth Energy Level -- Energy per blow (weight times drop height) Energy Intensity Factor -- Involves energy level, spacing, and number of blows
Typical Dynamic Compaction Program Involves Weights of 10 to 30 tons Drop heights of 17m to 35 m Impact grids of 2.5 x 2.5 m to 7.0 x 7.0 m
Important Dynamic Compaction Geotechnical Parameters * Soil conditions Groundwater level Relative density Degree of saturation Permeability
Minimum 35-50 meters clearance from any structure Review site for vibration sensitivity
Limitation
Dynamic Compaction Design Steps 1. Perform site investigation 2. Develop settlement influence diagrams 3. Develop initial Dynamic Compaction program 4. Develop numerical performance prediction 5. Develop QA/QC plans
Dynamic Compaction Acceptance Testing Large-Scale Load Test (where CPT & SPT are unreliable i.e. construction rubble and cobbles) Standard Penetration Test (SPT) Cone Penetrometer Test (CPT) Pressuremeter Test (PMT) Dilatometer Test (DMT) Shear-Wave Velocity Profile
Explosive compaction
Fireworks?
Aftermath of blasting
48
The Mechanism
Sudden dynamic loading breaks cohesion and any cementation Shockwave temporarily liquefies soil layer Settlement occurs as Du 0 Typical vertical strain between 2% and 10%
(Narin Van Court, 1995; GeoDesign, 2002)
Principle
Detonation of the explosives in a predetermined pattern causes liquefaction, followed by the expulsion of pore water and subsequent densification of the ground (Mitchell, 1970). Gas and water escape to the surface forming sand boils, but cratering can be avoided by a suitable arrangement of the explosives.
Fireworks?
Aftermath of blasting
For densifying granular soils
Definition
* Explosion or blasting is the process of detonating small charges within loose cohesionless soils for the purpose of densification. * Used to modify loose sands, rock, special soils (increase density index to 0.7 0.8) (loess), (soils with open skeletons)
Action
shear stresses
breaks down soil structure reorientation of particles volumetric reduction (up to 10%) temp. high pore pressure liquifaction (@ use vertical drains)
saturated soil
Why Blast?
Inexpensive Compare to remove/ replace or dynamic compaction, grouting, etc.
Improves soil at Maximum depth implemented: 40m depth Low impact to surroundings Controlled blasts leave nearby structures unaffected
Three to five detonations are usual. Figure 1.0 illustrates ground settlement as a function of the number of charges, based on Prugh (1963), 000 also suggested that the first firing (marker 1) caused 50 per cent settlement, the second (marker 2) 25 per cent, the third 15 per cent, the fourth 5 per cent. Kummeneje and Eide (1961) contradict this opinion, finding that similar settlements occurred after each detonation (Figure 2.0). A typical firing pattern for pad footings is shown on Figure 3.0. To assist the densification process, a 1.0 m surcharge should be used in conjunction with the blasting, but the upper 1-2 m of the ground is not compacted and will require replacement and compaction in layers using a vibrating roller.
Mitchell (1970) suggested that piezometers should be used to monitor pore-water pressures during the blasting operations.
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS 1- Charges should be placed at approximately -3/4 of desired depth of compaction. ( 2/3 depth is suggested by Prugh, 1963)' 2- Spacing of detonation holes should be between 5-15 m. 3- Actual spacing determined following a test section. 4- Delayed blasting, not simultaneous 5- Number of coverages 2-3. Each covering consists of a number of individual charges. Successive coverages are separated by hours or days. 6- Individual charge 1-12 kg, the amount of total explosive is 89-150 g/m^3 of treated soil. 7- Soil closest to the surface will be poorly compacted and may need compaction by another method or removal. 8- The compaction resulting from blasting is a function of the initial relative density 9- surface settlement: 2-10 per cent of layer thickness 10- small amounts of liberated gas can cause much damping of the shock waves,
EXAMPLES
Charge 10 Kg TNT in 15m deep holes 16m c/c needed 100g of TNT per 1m3 of soil (Netherlands) 0.125 Kg of TNT per 1m3 decreased sand volume by 6% ; organic mud by 4% (mud at 18m depth) (Gdansk) Relative density index of sand (ID) increased 0.35 0.8 (took 2 months to consolidate) 7 Kg TNT in 3m deep boreholes 7m c/c 0.3m settlement (USSR) of 5m thick layer
W 1/ 3 Nh R
Nh = Hopkins No. W = wt. of explosive (kg TNT) R = radial dist. of points of explosive m.
where Nh < 0.09 0.15 ;little or no liquefaction safe distance from explosion To treat a given thickness of soil, H, with single detonation with spacing of holes, S ; H3 W 0.055 1 .5 S = 2R = 2K3W