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Coal

Coal is a fossil fuel mined from ancient deposits. It is a black mineral of plant origin which is chemically, a complex mixture of elemental carbon, compounds of carbon containing hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and sulphur.

Formation of coal
Coal is believed to have been formed about 300 million years ago under the Earth by a process called carbonization. Carbonization is the process of slow conversion of vegetable matter to coal under the Earth due to the action of high pressure, high temperature, anaerobic bacteria and absence of oxygen.

Formation of Coal Deposits


Unlike petroleum, coal is not formed from marine organisms, but from the remains of land plants A swampy setting, in which plant growth is lush and where there is water to cover fallen trees, dead leaves and other plant debris, is ideal for the initial stages to create coal

Formation of coal in flow diagram

Types of coal
Depending upon the extent of carbonization, coal can be classified into four types as follows: Classification of coal Peat 11% , Lignite 38% (Soft coal / brown coal)Bituminous 65% (Household coal) Anthracite 96% (Hard coal) Peat is the first stage in the conversion of vegetable matter to coal while anthracite is the last.

Destructive distillation of coal

The process of heating coal in the absence of oxygen to obtain useful products is called destructive distillation of coal.

Laboratory method of destructive distillation of coal


Aim Destructive distillation of coal Materials required Two hard glass test tubes marked A and B, delivery tubes, clamp stand, burner, rubber stoppers, pieces of coal and water. Principle The volatile matter present in coal escapes on heating coal to a high temperature in the absence of oxygen. Procedure Small pieces of coal are taken in test tube A. Test tube A is fitted with a rubber stopper carrying a delivery tube and is clamped to the clamp stand. Test tube B containing water is clamped vertically to the clamp stand. The apparatus is assembled as shown in the figure. The burner is lighted and the test tube A is heated first gently and then intensely.

Formation of Coal Deposits


The products of coalification are divided into four major categories based on the carbon content of the material Peat Lignite

Bituminous
Anthracite

Peat
Peat is an accumulation of partially decayed vegetation matter and is the first stage in the formation of coal Peat forms in wetlands, variously called bogs, moors, muskegs, pocosins, mires, and swamps It contains a large amount of water and must be dried before use Historically, it has been used as a source of heat and burns with a long flame and considerable smoke

Peat
Peat deposits are found in many places around the world, notably in Russia, Ireland, Finland, Scotland, Poland, northern Germany, the Netherlands and Scandinavia, and in North America

Approximately 60% of the world's wetlands have peat

Peat
Peat is still mined as a fuel in Ireland and England

The peat is stacked to slowly dry out

Lignite
Lignite is the second step in the formation of coal and is formed when peat is subjected to increased vertical pressure from accumulating sediments Lignite, often referred to as brown coal, is the lowest rank of coal and used almost exclusively as fuel for steam-electric power generation
It has a high inherent moisture content, sometimes as high as 66 percent, and very high ash content compared to bituminous coal

Lignite
Because of its low energy density, brown coal is inefficient to transport and is not traded extensively on the world market compared to higher coal grades It is often burned in power stations constructed very close to the mines

Bituminous
Bituminous Coal is the third stage of coal formation Additional pressure over time has made it compact and virtually all traces of plant life have disappeared It is of higher quality than lignite coal but of poorer quality than anthracite coal It is greatly used in industry as a source of heat energy

Bituminous
Bituminous coal is usually black, sometimes dark brown, often with well-defined bands of bright and dull material It is a relatively hard coal containing a tarlike substance called bitumen

Bituminous
Bituminous coal is a complex molecular mix of 60-80% carbon, plus oxygen, hydrogen and nitrogen, plus some occasional impurities like sulfur

Coking Coal
When used for many industrial processes, bituminous coal must first be "coked" to remove volatile components Coking is achieved by heating the coal in the absence of oxygen, which drives off volatile hydrocarbons such as propane, benzene and other aromatic hydrocarbons, and some sulfur gases and a considerable amount of the contained water of the bituminous coal Coking coal is used in the manufacture of steel, where carbon must be as volatile-free and ashfree as possible

Anthracite
Anthracite is formed during the forth stage of coal formation

It is the most valuable and highest grade of coal, and has a carbon content of 92-98%
Physically, anthracite differs from bituminous coal by its greater hardness and higher density Plus, it burns far more efficiently with less smoke

Products formed and their uses

Product

Formed/collected in

Uses Can be distilled to obtain: Benzene solvent Toluene manufacture of explosive TNT Naphthalene insect repellent

Bottom of the test tube B. Coal Tar (complex mixture of Liquid residue insoluble in carbon compounds) water

Coal gas (CH4+CO+H2)

Combustible gas insoluble in water. Escapes through the Industrial fuel side tube Soluble in water present in test tube Manufacture of nitrogenous fertilizers i) Reducing agent in metallurgy ii) Manufacture of water gas and producer gas Industrial fuel

Liquor ammonia (NH4OH)

Coke (98%C)

Solid residue left behind in test tube A

Uses of coal
On destructive distillation, coal yields useful products like coal gas, coal tar, ammonia and coke. Generation of electricity Domestic fuel for cooking and heating Manufacture of synthetic petroleum and natural gas To heat water in steam engines and boilers Coal is thus regarded as the backbone of our national economy.

Petroleum
Petroleum is a dark, viscous, foul smelling liquid, a mixture of solid, liquid and gaseous hydrocarbons with traces of salt, rock particles and water.

Composition
Complex mixture of hydrocarbons, chiefly alkanes

Formation
Petroleum is believed to have been originated from the remains of sea organisms. The micro organisms have largely contributed to the formation of petroleum. Due to the effect of heat, pressure and catalytic action of anaerobic bacteria, the buried remains of sea organisms decomposed very slowly forming petroleum.

Occurrence of petroleum
Petroleum occurs in nature, trapped between two layers of impervious (non-porous) rocks, usually under the sea. Natural gas collects above the surface of petroleum.

Mining of petroleum
Petroleum is brought to the surface by drilling a hole in the Earth's crust and sinking pipes deep down through the impervious cap rock. Natural gas first comes out under high pressure. Then, petroleum is pumped out, collected in tanks and transported, for further processing.

Refining of petroleum
Separation of petroleum into simpler fractions after the removal of unwanted materials.

Fractionating Column The fractionating column is a tall steel tower attached to an electrically heated furnace. Throughout the length of the tower, there are trays with raised holes covered with loose fitting caps called the bubble caps. These caps allow the vapours to rise up and not descend down. The tower has outlet pipes at various levels along it's length.

Process of fractional distillation


Crude petroleum is pumped into the furnace where it is heated to a temperature of about 400oC. Petroleum is converted to vapours in the furnace. The vapours of petroleum are fed into the fractionating column from the bottom. As the vapours enter the column, they rise up and gradually get cooled. At the bottom of the furnace, the temperature is about 400oC. Here, the component that has a boiling point close to 400oC condenses (liquifies) first and is collected on the tray. From the tray it is let off through the outlet pipe. The remaining vapours rise up through the bubble caps. When the vapours reach a particular height in the tower, the fraction that has a boiling point close to the temperature at that height condenses on the tray. The remaining vapours continue to rise upwards. Like this, at different levels in the tower, different fractions get condensed, collect on the trays and flow out of the outlet pipes.

Residual oil is that component of petroleum, which is collected first at the bottom of the tower. It has a boiling range of over 400oC. It can be further distilled separately to obtain lubricating oil, paraffin wax, asphalt etc. Most fractions of petroleum are fuels. Asphalt, lubricating oil and petroleum jelly are not used as fuels.

During fractional distillation of petroleum, Petroleum products are groups into three categories. The list of petroleum products are as follows, Light distillates Middle distillates Heavy distillates

Liquid petroleum gas: It is the uncondensed gas product released less than 30 degree Celsius. It consists of carbon atoms ranges from one to four. It is used as fuel used in domestic purposes like cooking. Gasoline: Gasoline or petrol is a highly volatile liquid product, produced between 40 120 degree Celsius during fractional distillation. It is used as fuel in vehicles and as a solvent. Naphtha: It is a colorless product produced between 120 180 degree Celsius .It consists of carbon atoms ranges from nine to ten. It is also known as white spirit, used as solvent as well as fuel.

Middle distillates:
The list of middle distillates is Kerosene fuel Diesel fuel

Kerosene fuel: It is the high boiling fraction produced between 180 250 degree Celsius. It consists of carbon atoms ranges from nine to ten. It is mainly used as fuel and for making gas. Diesel fuel: It is also the high boiling fraction produced between250 380 degree Celsius. It consists of carbon atoms ranges from 15 to 18. In diesel engines, it is used as fuel.

Heavy distillates:
The list of heavy distillates is Fuel oils Lubricating oils Paraffin wax Asphalt and tar Petroleum coke

Fuel oils: The left over portion of petroleum after distilling off all the lighter fractions are called fuel oils. It consist of high calorific content. Asphalt: Asphalts are obtained by the oxidation of residual heavy oil in air at higher temperature and vacuum distillation. Asphalt has high viscosity, occur in semi- solid forms. It is used for road making and water proofs.

Light distillates:
The list of light distillates is Liquid petroleum gas Gasoline Naphtha

Biogas
Biogas is a clean and efficient fuel. It is a mixture of methane (CH4), carbon dioxide (CO2), hydrogen (H2) and hydrogen sulphide (H2S). The chief constituent of biogas is methane (65%).

Production of Biogas - The biogas plants


There are two types of biogas plants in usage for the production of biogas. These are: The fixed- dome type of biogas plant The floating gas holder type of biogas plant

Advantages of biogas as a fuel


High calorific value Clean fuel No residue produced No smoke produced Non polluting Economical Can be supplied through pipe lines Burns readily - has a convenient ignition temperature

Uses of biogas
Domestic fuel For street lighting Generation of electricity

Advantages of biogas plants


Reduces burden on forests and fossil fuels Produces a clean fuel - helps in controlling air pollution Provides nutrient rich (N & P) manure for plants Controls water pollution by decomposing sewage, animal dung and human excreta

Limitations of biogas plants


Initial cost of installation of the plant is high. Number of cattle owned by an average family of farmers is inadequate to feed a biogas plant.

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