RADAR

LEARNING OBJECTIVES: At the end of the lesson the student shall be able to 1. Have sufficient knowledge of fundamentals and principles of radar. 2. Understand the factors that affects the reliability and performance of the radar.

 On Chapter V Regulation 19 of the SOLAS 1974

Convention, it lays down the Carriage requirement for shipborne navigational systems and equipment. Under Regulation V/19 paragraph 2.7, 2.7.1, 2.7.2 it requires that all ships of 3,000 gross tonnage and upwards shall have a 3 GHz radar (10-cm or S-band) or, where considered appropriate by the administration, a second 9GHz radar (3-cm or X-band), or other means, to determine and display the range and bearing of other surface craft, obstructions, buoys, shorelines and navigational marks to assist in navigation and in collision avoidance. Moreover the International for Preventing Collision at Sea 1972 requires the use of radar in the ship.

What is RADAR?
RADAR- it is a term derived from Radio Detection And Ranging. It is applied to electronic equipment designed to determine distance by measuring the time required for a radio signal to travel from a transmitter to a target and return either as a reflected echo or as a retransmitted signal from a transponder triggered by the original signal.

BASIC PRINCIPLE
Radar performs the same kind of action, it produces extremely short burst of radio signal. Short radio waves like acoustic waves are reflected by objects that comes in their way.

On board a ship the radar has two main tasks:

1. To function as an aid to prevent collisions, as 2.

with the help of radar, one can see in fog and darkness. To assist in the navigation, particularly at landfalls and when navigating in coastal waters or in archipelagos.

RADIO WAVE TERMINOLOGY

Crest the highest point on wave curve ( in the

direction considered positive ) Trough the lowest point on wave curve ( in the direction considered negative ) Peak - either point on wave curve i.e. the crest or trough Amplitude the maximum displacement of the wave from its mean or zero value Wave Front the forward side of any wave

 Cycle one complete oscillation or one complete

wave, i.e. that part of the wave motion passing zero in one direction until it passes the next zero in the same direction. This is also that part of the wave motion from crest to crest or from trough to trough Wave Length the distance along the direction of propagation between successive crests or troughs. When one cycle has been completed, the wave has travelled one wavelength ( it is usually expressed in metric units meters, centimeters, etc.) Frequency the number of cycles completed per second

This is given in hertz (Hz), a unit of measure of frequency. 1 Hz simply means 1 cycle per second. DIFFERENT FREQUENCIES:

Kilohertz (kHz) 1000 cycles per second Megahertz (MHz) 1,000,000 cycles per second Gigahertz (GHz) 1,000,000,000 cycles per
second Terahertz (THz) 1,000,000,000,000 cycles per second

 Petahertz (PHz) 1,000,000,000,000,000 cycles

per second Exahertz (EHz) 1,000,000,000,000,000,000 cycles per second

Did you know?

Hertz is named after the German physicist Heinrich Hertz

3 MAJOR COMPONENTS OF RADAR

1) SCANNER- consists of the reflector, the drive assembly, and horns which rotate between 10 and 20 rpm depending on the design of the equipment. RADAR ENERGY is conducted to the horn from the transmitter through a hollow rectangular pipe called WAVEGUIDE. At the end of the horn is a plastic window through which energy passes and is directed into the reflector. The reflector in turn focuses the energy into a narrow beam which is being constantly rotated.

2) TRANSCEIVER

On the diagram, the transmitter and receiver are

interconnected with the scanner through a common hollow pipe called waveguide. In transmitting, the magnetron tube provides the radio waves energy to the scanner. The magnetron will extinguish after a short burst of energy. Radar waves travel at 328 yards per microsecond. The modulator provides the timing of the transmitted pulses which are sent out by the magnetron.

3) INDICATOR It provides the radar observer with the information he seeks in collision avoidance and navigation CATHODE RAY TUBE- it is on this scope that all objects which reflect radar energy are seen. The center represents own ship SWEEP LINE - The sweep is synchronized (trigger) with the number of pulses being transmitted.

Major Components of a Radar

Reflector Feed horn

SCANNER
Waveguide

Transmitter (Magnetron)

TR Tube

Video
Timing Trigger

Receiver

Modulator

TRANSCEIVER

INDICATOR

BASIC RADAR COMPONENTS:

1. POWER SUPPLY= furnishes all AC and DC voltages necessary for the operation of the system components. 2. MODULATOR= produces the synchronizing signals that trigger the transmitter the required number of times per second. It also triggers the indicator sweep and coordinates the other associated circuit. 3. TRANSMITTER= generates the r-f energy in the form of short powerful pulses. 4. ANTENNA SYSTEM (AERIAL) = takes the r-f energy from the transmitter, radiates it in a highly directional beam, receives any returning echoes and passes it to the receiver. 5. RECEIVER= amplifies the weak radio energy pulses (echoes) returned by a contact and reproduces them as video pulses passed to the indicator. 6. INDICATOR= produces a visual indication of the echo pulses in a manner that furnishes the desired information (ranges and bearings of targets).

Operational limitations
1. It is a complex electronic instrument, dependent upon power source, and is subject to mechanical and electrical failure. 2. There is a minimum range limitation, resulting from returning echoes from nearby wave crest (sea return), and a maximum range limitation.

3. Interpretation of the radarscope display is difficult at times, even for a trained and experience operator.

4. Line of Position (LOP) from radar bearings is inaccurate. Care must be taken especially when using land mark, to be certain of which features are being painted on the radar set. The operators must be constantly aware of the pitfalls associated with radar range resolution and radar shadow zones.
5. Radar is susceptible to both natural and deliberate interference. 6. Radar shadows and sea return may render objects undetectable by radar.

RADAR operating controls 1. Indicator power switch

This switch on the indicator has OFF, STAND-BY, and OPERATE (ON) positions. If the switch is turned directly from the OFF to OPERATE positions, there is a warm up period of about 3 minutes before the radar set is in full operation. During the warm up period the cathodes of the tubes are heated, this heating being necessary prior to applying high voltages. If the switch is in the STANDBY position for a period longer than that required warm up, the radar set is placed in full operation immediately upon turning the switch to the operate position. Keeping the radar set in Standby when not in use tends to lessen maintenance problems. Frequent switching from OFF to OPERATE tends to cause tube failures

2. Brilliance Control It is adjusted to make the trace of the rotating sweep visible but not too bright. 3. Receiver Gain Control The receiver gain control is adjusted until a speckled background just appears on the PPI. With too little gain, weak echoes may not be detected; with excessive gain, strong echoes may not be detected because of the poor contrast between echoes and the background of the PPI display. On shifting to a different range scale, the brightness may change. Generally, the required readjustment may be affected through use of the receiver gain control alone although the brightness of the PPI display is dependent upon the settings of the receiver gain and brilliance controls.

4. Rain Clutter Control It provides the means for breaking up clutter which otherwise could obscure the echo of a target of interest. 5. Sea Clutter Control This control is used with a circuit which is designed to suppress sea clutter out to a limited distance from the ship. Its purpose is to enable the detection of close contact which otherwise might be obscured by sea clutter. This control must be used judiciously in conjunction with the receiver gain control.

6. Tuning Control If the radar set design does not have an automatic frequency control (AFC) circuit to keep the receiver tuned to the transmitter for optimum performance, the manual tuning control must be adjusted to obtain the best reception of echoes. Some radar set designs having automatic frequency control also have provisions for manual tuning in case of failure of the AFC. Without automatic frequency control the tuning must be adjusted at frequent intervals after the set is turned on. After 30minutes operation, this frequent adjustment is not required normally. The tuning should be checked periodically to ensure that the radar is operating properly, particularly if no contacts are being observed.

7. Electronic Bearing Line (EBL) The brightness of electronic bearing cursor is adjusted by a control for this purpose. Unless the electronic bearing cursor appears as a dashed or dotted line, the brightness levels of the electronic bearing cursor and the heading flash should be different to serve as an aid to their identification.
8. Variable Range Marker (VRM)

The brightness of the variable range marker is adjusted by the control labeled VRM. This control is adjusted so that the ring described by the VRM is sharp and clear but not too bright.
In conclusion, although radar is not a panacea for the navigator, intelligent use of its capabilities certainly will aid in safely directing the movements of a vessel.

CHARACTERISTICS OF RADAR SET AND FACTORS AFFECTING PERFORMANCE ACCURACY:

1. CARRIER FREQUENCY= the frequency at which the r-f energy is generated. TWO TYPES: 1. High Frequency Radar (3 CM.,X-BAND, 10,000Mhz) good for bad weather. Long range detection (used for landfall) 2. Low Frequency Radar (10 CM.,S-BAND, 3,000Mhz) good for all types of weather. Short range detection (entering and transiting channels)

2. PULSE REPETITION RATE (PRR) = the number of pulses transmitted per second 3. PULSE LENGTH= the transmission time of a single pulse of radio-frequency (r-f) energy measured in microseconds. a. Short Pulse (SP) uses range scale of 6 miles and below. b. Medium Pulse (MP) uses range scale of 6 miles to 12 miles. c. Long Pulse (LP) uses range scale of 12 miles and above. 4. POWER RELATIONSHIP -= the power level of each pulse of radiated energy.

FACTORS AFFECTING BEARING AND RANGE ACCURACY

1. In order to achieve the required directional

characteristic the horizontal beam width limits must be narrow. HORIZONTAL BEAM WIDTH - the angle within which the energy is constrained scanner housing or pedestal when the radar was installed. Failure to center the origin of the trace will result in error in bearing which are obtained.

2. Incorrect positioning of a contact inside the 3.

Range Discrimination also referred as

range resolution, described the ability of the radar system to display separately the echoes of two targets which lie on the same bearing but which are closely spaced in range. Bearing Discrimination also referred as bearing resolution, described the ability of the radar system to display separately the echoes of two targets, which lie at the same range but are closely spaced in bearing.

EXTERNAL FACTORS AFFECTING RADAR DETECTION

1. Line of Sight this means the even though the radar is delivering powerful pulse and the target is capable, the target will not be detected if it is below the radar horizon. 2. Refraction takes place when the velocity of a wave is changed. This can happen when the wave front passes the boundary of two substances of different densities. If the change of density is increasing or decreasing gradually, the direction of the wave front gradually change and will follow a curve path.

There are two classes of abnormal refraction, which caused abnormal radar visibility. a) Super-Refraction Occurs when the rate of decrease in refractive index with height is greater than standard condition, the radar beam tends to bend down slightly more and so targets may be detected at ranges which are slightly greater than standard. b. Sub-Refraction occurs when the refractive index of the atmosphere decreases less rapidly with height than under standard conditions. As a result the radar beam is bent downward slightly less than standard conditions. This means that the target will be detected at a slightly reduced range.

3. Precipitation is the general term used to describe collectively various states in which water can manifest itself in the atmosphere, of which rain, fog, snow and hails are examples. Reflections from precipitation can produce unwanted echoes on the screen and these are referred to as rain clutter though it is recognized that they may originate from other forms of precipitation. 4. Blind Spots and Shadow Areas are caused by obstruction on land, by other vessel or by obstruction of own ship in the path of radar beam. In a blind area the radar beam is completely cut-off. In a shadow area of reduced intensity when the beams bends or diffracts round ridges or smaller objects.

CAUSED AND EFFECT OF MULTIPLE ECHOES

Multiple echoes are caused by the reflection between own ship and the target before the scanner finally collects its energy. The effect on the screen is that, besides the original echo, there are seen, on the same line of bearing, one or more echoes, equidistantly spaced and having ranges of multiple of the true range. Multiple echoes are nuisance when a ship is approaching an anchor roads where several ships are riding at anchor. The picture on the screen can become confused due to several multiple echoes of different ships, and it is difficult to distinguish between true and false echoes.

DIFFERENT TYPES OF DISPLAY MODE

1. True Motion (TM) in as true motion 2.

3.

presentation, the echo movement of all targets is rendered independent of the moving vessel. Relative Motion (RM) in the relative motion presentation, the origin of display is stationary and the movement of all targets is shown with respect to the observing vessel. Ships-Head-Up Orientation (HU) the observer views the picture with the heading marker at the top of the screen.

DIFFERENT TYPES OF DISPLAY MODE

4. North-Up Orientation (NU) the heading marker is aligned with the graduation on the fixed bearing scale, which correspond with the instantaneous value of the ships heading, As a result, the 0000 graduation represents true north. Thus, the observer views the picture with north at the top of the screen. 5. Course-Up Orientation (CU) Stabilized the heading marker is aligned to the graduation on the fixed bearing scale at an instant the vessel is right on the chosen course.

RADAR SCOPE INTERPRETATION

PIP CHARACTERISTICS 1. Size of PIP depends on the following: a. Range of target b. Size of target c. Height of target d. Aspect of target: bow or broadside e. Material composition of target f. Correctness of tuning 2. Shape of PIP depends on the type of target and contour. 3. Movement or change in ranges and bearings.

TARGET CHARACTERISTICS 1. Land Targets a. Covers a greater area on the screen than other targets. b. No motion with TRUE MOTION radar. c. With RELATIVE MOTION radar, movement is opposite and equal to the motion of the ship. d. In the geographic plot, it should be at its expected position. 2. Ship Target a. At medium range it is bright. b. Steady and clearly defined image in the PPI. c. PIP fades only when range becomes too great. d. Small craft of fishing vessel appear at about 4 to 5 NM, as extremely weak echo.

3. Aircraft Targets a. Rapid motion of the echo on the radar scope. b. Echo fades and appears again shortly. c. It brightens and the rapidly decrease in brightness. 4. Ice Detection a. Iceberg maybe detected in 15 to 20 n.miles. b. Bergy bits part of ice berg that was chip off. Rises 15 feet above sea surface, echoes are weak and may be lost in the sea clutter. c. Growler most dangerous ice formation. Rises 6 feet above sea surface, extremely poor radar target because it is round due to wave action.

RADAR AS AN AID TO NAVIGATION

1. Advantage of Radar in Navigation a. Radar can be used when no other methods is available. b. Use at night or during condition of low visibility. c. Provide accurate range information. d. Helpful anti-collision device. e. Track and locate squals and nearby tropical storms. 2. Limitation (Disadvantages) a. Sometimes less accurate fix than by visual means b. Minimum range affected by the pulse width of the radar. c. Radars are subject to electronic failure.

3. Procedures and Techniques a. Radar fixes b. Look-out information c. Set and Drift 4. Methods of obtaining radar fixes a. Range and bearing to a single object, commonly used when piloting close to shore. b. Two or more bearings (cross bearing), the same method used by the navigator when taking visual gyro bearings. c. Two or more ranges, the most accurate method especially when augmented by a visual gyro bearings.

5. Radar Aids Navigation a. RACON (Radar Control) a responder type beacons which is triggered by a pulse from a ships radar. Sends out video signals (characteristics / I.D.) when the radar pulses strike the antenna receiver.
b. RAMARK (Radar Marker) is a radar beacon which transmit on all radar frequencies continuously or at intervals, therefore your radar set will receive signals during the time your scanner is pointing to the direction of the beacon. c. Transponder provides positive identification and other relevant data.

PROCEDURES FOR ENSURING RANGE ACCURACY

Adjust the brilliance of the VRM, or EBL to obtain

the finest possible line. Measured the range to the nearest edge of the display echo. Use the rings when the target is on or close to a ring. Use VRM, EBL or joystick marker to interpolate between the rings. Regularly check VRM, EBL or joystick marker against the ring.

PROCEDURES FOR ENSURING BEARING ACCURACY

Check regularly that the heading marker

accurately represents the ships fore and aft line. Ensure that the picture is correctly orientated. Use an appropriate range scale with the target as near to the edge of the screen as possible. Check the EBL or joystick marker by superimposing them on the heading marker at which the bearing and the heading should agree. Any error should be noted, applied to bearing and caused investigated. For small isolated target align the cursor, EBL or marker with the center of the target.