Radiation Safety Series

Lesson 1

Introduction to Radiation
Discovery of Radioactivity
 History of Discovery
1895 – Wilhelm Roentgen; Discovered X-Ray
1895 – Henri Becquerel; Rays from Uranium
1898 – Marie & Pierre Curie; Work with
Radium
1899 – Ernest Rutherford; Alpha, Beta &
Gamma
1905 – Albert Einstein; Theory of Relativity
 Wilhelm Roentgen
• 8 Nov 1895
Discovered X-Rays
• Received the Nobel
Prize in Physics 1901
• Brilliant Scientist
• Never sought Honors
or profit from his work

www.accessexcellence.org/AE/AEC/CC/radioactivity.html
 Henri Becquerel
• Third Generation
Scientist
• Discovered
Radioactivity
• Discovered charged
partials.
• Received the Nobel
Prize in Physics 1903

www.accessexcellence.org/AE/AEC/CC/radioactivity.html
 Marie & Pierre Curie
• Marie coined the term
Radioactivity
• Both discovered
Polonium & Radium
• Both shared the Nobel
Prize in Physics of
1903
• 1910 Curie is basic
unit of radioactivity

www.accessexcellence.org/AE/AEC/CC/radioactivity.html
 Ernest Rutherford
• The father of nuclear
physics
• Particles- Alpha, Beta
& Neutron
• Radioactive decay
equation
• Concept of half life
• Elements transmuted
• 1908 Nobel Price
www.accessexcellence.org/AE/AEC/CC/radioactivity.html
 Albert Einstein
• General physicist
• Most well-known
physicist of our time
• E = mc2
• Theoretical indication
that the Atomic Bomb
is possible

www.bartleby.com/173/
 Milestones in Radiation and
Radiography
1922 – Memorial to scientists in Hamburg Germany
1922 – Industrial X-Ray; Watertown Laboratory
1929 – Gamma Radiography; Naval Research Lab.
1945 – 1st Atomic Bomb; White Sands Missile
Range
1946 – Atomic Energy Commission Established
Radiation Safety Training Series Part 1: Radiation, Rudarmel Enterprises, inc. Lake Oswego, Oregon
 Atoms are Elements
• Elements are made of
– Electrons
– Protons
– Neutrons
– +, positive charge
– -, negative charge
– 0, neutral charge

Radiation Safety Training Series Part 1: Radiation, Rudarmel Enterprises, inc. Lake Oswego, Oregon
Atomic Energy Levels
• Electrons are arranged
in shells
• Electrically balanced
atoms have equal
number of protons and
neutrons
• This atom has 18
protons
SHELLS ONLY HOLD SOME
ELECTRONS
• The first 18 elements
• k-shell only holds two
• l-shell only holds eight
• m-shell only holds eight
• m-shell can actually hold
up to 18 electrons as you
move further along the
periodic table.
Radiation Safety Training Series Part 1: Radiation, Rudarmel Enterprises, inc. Lake Oswego, Oregon
 ORBITAL BASICS
• A shell is sometimes
called an orbital or
energy level.
• Shells are areas that
surround the center of an
atom.
• The center of the atom is
called the nucleus.
• Electrons live in
something called shells.
Radiation Safety Training Series Part 1: Radiation, Rudarmel Enterprises, inc. Lake Oswego, Oregon
 Mathematical Probability
• Orbitals are described
by probability
• An orbital exists as a
cloud
• Each atom has a
different orbital cloud
structure

http://chemed.chem.purdue.edu/genchem/topicreview/bp/ch6/quantum.html
www.mii.org
Element Description
• Atomic number 6
• Atomic mass 12.01
• Electron configuration
• Oxidation state
• Symbol
• Melting/boiling point
• Density/electronegativ
ity
Isotopes
• Hydrogen is the
common stable form
• Deuterium is rare but
stable form
• Tritium (radioactive)
is an unstable form
• Atoms of the same
element have different
characteristics
 Origin and Types of Radiation
• Bremsstrahlung – braking ray
-high energy electron impacting a target
• Nuclear decay
• Manmade radioactivity
Simple X-Ray Generator
• Electrons boiled off
the cathode
• Electrons impact the
Anode -dense material
• A continuous
spectrum of X-Rays
are emitted in all
directions
Radiation from Nuclear Decay
• Collimated radiation
• One spot would glow
• Magnetic field would
make three spots glow
- Alpha
- Beta
- Gamma
 Types of Radiation
• Alpha partial is two protons and two
neutrons having a positive charge and mass
• Beta particle is a high energy electron with
a negative charge and little mass
• Gamma ray is electromagnetic energy
possessing no mass and no charge
• Neutron particle has no charge but it does
have mass
 Electromagnetic Spectra

www.lbl.gov/MicroWorlds/ALSTool/EMSpec/EMSpec2.html
Differences in Gamma and X-ray
• X-Ray wavelengths ranges 10-8 to 10-13
• Gamma wavelength ranges 10-11 to 10-13
• X-Ray is electronically generated and stops
when you turn off the power
• Gamma is naturally occurring and
continuous
Creating a Radioactive Isotope
 Human Exposure to Radiation
Exposure from Natural Background
Cosmic Rays (sun and outer space) 14%
Building materials 2%
Human body 12%
The earth 13%
Approx. % annual exposure 50%
 Human Exposure to Radiation
Exposure from Manmade Sources
Medical (mostly diagnostic x-ray) 45%
Fallout from atomic bombs 2.5%
Nuclear power 0.15%
Consumer products (mostly color TV’s) 0.5%
Approx. % annual exposure 50%
 Human Exposure to Radiation
Occupational Radiation exposures
Workers at Gamma Radiography
Company’s 3X
Gamma radiographer’s 5X
 Time, Distance and Shielding
• How do we reduce our exposure to
radiation?
• We can calculate stay times, dose rates and
distance from sources.
• We can calculate shielding requirements
and or effects
• Our first step, Inverse Square Law
 Inverse Square Law, General
• Any point source which spreads its
influence equally in all directions without a
limit to its range will obey the inverse
square law. This comes from strictly
geometrical considerations. The intensity of
the influence at any given radius r is the
source strength divided by the area of the
sphere.
 Inverse Square Law, General
Continued
• Being strictly geometric in its origin, the
inverse square law applies to diverse
phenomena. Point sources of gravitational
force, electric field, light, sound or radiation
obey the inverse square law.
 Inverse Square Law, General

http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/forces/isq.html
Inverse Square Law, Radiation

http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/forces/isq.html
Inverse Square Law, Radiation
S/4πr2 = I
S = 4πr2 I
S = 4πr12 I1 S = 4πr22 I2
4πr12 I1 = S = 4πr22 I2
4πr12 I1 = 4πr22 I2

r12 I1 = r22 I2
Inverse Square Law, Radiation

r 1 I1 = r 2 I2
2 2
 Example
If the intensity of the Andrex is 1040 R/hr at
one foot from the tube head then what is the
distance to the 2mR line.
I1 = 1040 R/hr r1 = 1’
I2 = 2 mR/hr r2 = ?
r12 I1 = r22 I2 → r2 = √(r12 I1/ I2)
r2 = √(r12 I1/ I2)
 Example
r2 = √(r12 I1/ I2)

r2 = √(1040 R/hr ∙ 1’ / 0.002 R/hr)

r2 = 721’
r2 = 721 feet
 Works Sited
Partial List:
http://www.accessexcellence.org/AE/AEC/CC/radioactivity.html
http://www.accessexcellence.org/AE/AEC/CC/historical_background.html
Radiation Safety Training Series Part 1: Radiation, Rudarmel Enterprises, inc.
Lake Oswego, Oregon
http://www.chem4kids.com/files/atom_structure.html
http://orbitals.com/orb/
http://chemed.chem.purdue.edu/genchem/topicreview/bp/ch6/quantum.html
www.bartleby.com/173/
www.mii.org
http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/forces/isq.html