Qualitative Research Methods

Qualitative research...

Commonly called interpretive research

its methods rely heavily on thick verbal descriptions of a particular social context being studied

 Is useful for describing or answering

questions about particular, localized occurrences or contexts and the perspectives of a participant group toward events, beliefs, or practices

a helpful process for exploring a complex research area about which little is known

 Illuminates the

invisibility of everyday life by making the familiar strange, more examined, and better understood

Qualitative methods...
historical research ethnography case study ethology ethnomethodology

grounded theory phenomenology symbolic interaction action research

historical research

studies available data to study, understand, and interpret past events

ethnography

studies cultural patterns and perspectives of participants in their natural settings

case study

examines the characteristics of a particular entity, phenomenon, or person

ethology

compares the origins, characteristics, and culture of different societies

Ethno-methodology

studies how people make sense of their everyday activities in order to behave in socially accepted ways

Grounded theory

investigates how inductively-derived theory about phenomenon is grounded in the data of a particular setting

Phenomenology

considers how the experience of particular participants exhibits a unique perspective

Symbolic interaction

investigates how people construct meaning and shared perspectives by interacting with others

Action research

teacher-initiated, school-based research used to improve the practitioners practice by doing or changing something

Generally speaking, qualitative researchers. spend a great deal of time in the settings being studied (fieldwork) rely on themselves as the main instrument of data collection (subjectivity; intersubjectivity) analyze data using interpretative lenses

employ expressive language and voice in descriptions and explanations seek depth of perspective through ongoing analysis (i.e., waves of data) judged in terms of believability, trustworthiness, coherence, and the logic underlying researchers interpretations

The general characteristics of qualitative research...

Data sources are real-world situations Data are descriptive Emphasizes a holistic approach (processes and outcomes) Data analysis is inductive Describes the meaning(s) of research finding(s) from the perspective of the research participants

Uses inductive reasoning involves developing generalizations from a limited number of specific observations or experiences highly dependent on the number and representativeness of the specific observations used to make the generalization

Issues in qualitative research...

a. gaining entry b. contacting potential research participants c. selecting participants d. enhancing validity and reducing bias e. leaving the field

a. gaining entry...

access is very much dependent upon the researchers personal characteristics and how others perceive the researcher may require considerable negotiation and compromise with a gatekeeper trust is earned, not given

b. contacting participants...

gaining access dealing with gatekeeper(s) issues of building trust and ensuring confidentiality and anonymity

c. selecting participants...

the goal is to get the deepest possible understanding of the setting being studied requires identifying participants who can provide information about the particular topic and setting being studied

is fraught with difficulties in identifying and selecting an appropriate number of participants who can provide useful information about the particular topic and setting being studied utilizes purposive sampling

types of purposive sampling maximum variation homogeneous critical case theory-based (dis)confirming case snowball (chain)

extreme (deviant) case typical case intensity politically important case random purposeful

stratified purposeful criterion opportunistic combination (mixed) convenience

two general guidelines: the number of participants is sufficient when the extent to which the selected participants represent the range of potential participants in the setting the point at which the data gathered begins to be redundant (data saturation)

The threats to validity in qualitative studies...

observer bias invalid information resulting from the perspective the researcher brings to the study and imposes upon it observer effects the impact of the observers participation on the setting or the participants being studied

d. strategies to enhance validity and to reduce bias...

extend the time for observing the setting

include more participants to make the study more representative focus upon building participant trust in order to access more detailed and honest data

identify biases and preferences, seek them out by asking others work with another researcher and compare field notes and impressions from independent observations after observations are completed, offer participants an opportunity to validate accuracy of the verbatims

journalize ones own reflections, concerns, and uncertainties during the study and refer to them when examining the data carefully examine unusual or contradictory results for explanations (outliers)

utilize a variety of data sources to confirm one another to corroborate participant information (triangulation)

e. leaving the field

The question is when and how to exit?

the bonds formed with study participants complicate leaving the setting time constraints when the amount of accessible data is sufficient

The basic steps of qualitative research...

1. Write a tentative research proposal 2. Intensive participation in a field setting 3. Collect detailed data from field activities

4. Synthesize and interpret the meanings of the field data 5. Write the research report

1. The qualitative research proposal...

defines area of study identifies setting or context of study specifies the kinds of data to be collected
describes methods to be used provides the researchers rationale for undertaking the study identifies the studys potential contribution(s)

2. Intensive participation in a field setting...

participation: as a participant (participant observer) or nonparticipant approach to participation: overt or covert requires experiencing the situation from the perspective of both an observer and a participant

3. Collecting and analyzing data...

primary tools include observations and interviews but can also include personal and official documents, photographs, recordings, drawings, emails, and informal conversations multiple data sources are normative

the researcher records descriptive as well as reflective notes about what one has seen, heard, experienced, and thought about a during an observation session

regarding field notes put aside assumptions, experience context first see phenomena through participants perspective write up notes immediately following an observation

detail is critical: include date, site, time, and topic on every set of field notes; leave wide margins for writing impressions; use only one side of a page of paper; draw diagram of site (if necessary) list key words first, then outline ones observations

keep the descriptive and reflective sections separate use memos to record hunches, questions and insights after each observation number the lines or paragraphs for easy access

regarding interviews the purpose is to explore and to probe the interviewees responses in order to gather in-depth data the interviewer inquires into the interviewees attitudes, interests, feelings, concerns, and values as these relate to the context being studied

meaning is jointly constructed between the interviewer and the interviewee; meaning is not just a construction on the part of the interviewee

be alert for openings in responses to probe more deeply, starting with mundane questions and gradually easing into more sensitive and more complex questions

interview data collection techniques include taking notes during the interview, writing notes after the interview, or tape recording and transcribing the interview (the transcript is a verbatim)

Interview dos and donts...

Do listen more and talk less Do follow up on what is not clear and probe more deeply into what is revealed Dont use leading questions; do use openended questions (probes) Dont interrupt; do wait

Do keep interviewee(s) focused Do ask for concrete details Do tolerate silence and space between interviewees responses; do allow the interviewee time to think Dont be judgmental about or react to an interviewees opinions, views, or beliefs

Dont engage in debate with an interviewee Do record everything the interviewee says and note impressions of interviewees nonverbal behavior

4. Synthesis and interpretation of the meanings of field data...

a formidable task because data are thick and deep as well as voluminous and unorganized (field notes) involves a systematic and iterative process of searching, categorizing, and integrating data (managing data)
understanding emerges as data are integrated

Analyzing field data

data pieces

data categories data patterns

 four-step iterative process of data management...

a. reading and memoing to become familiar with data and to identify main themes b. examining data to develop detailed descriptions of the setting, participants, and activities

c. classifying the data, including categorization, coding, and grouping into thematic units d. interpreting and synthesizing the organized data into general conclusions or understandings

Involves working with field notes deconstructing data into pieces reconstructing the data pieces into categories identifying patterns for understanding, synthesis, and interpretation

Criteria suitable for qualitative data analysis...

a. credibility or plausibility b. transferability c. including a methods section

credibility or plausibility to demonstrate that the study was conducted in such a manner as to ensure that the subject was accurately identified and described

transferability to demonstrate that the results of the study are generalizable to others in the original research context or to contexts beyond the original study

including a methods section to provide an in-depth description of the processes and methods used in the study

Strategies for analyzing qualitative data...

a. constant comparison method b. negative case and discrepant data methods c. analytic induction

constant comparison method compares new evidence to prior evidence to identify similarities and differences between observations

negative case and discrepant data methods the search for contradictory, variant, or disconfirming data within the body of data collected that provides an alternative perspective on an emerging category or pattern

analytic induction a process concerned with developing and testing a theory in order to generalize a studys findings

5. Writing the research report...

provide a setting where the data were collected identify characters who provide information describe the social action in which the characters are engaged offers an interpretation of what the social action means to the characters

offers an interpretation of what the social action means to the characters follow all APA Publication Manual guidelines