BASIC CONCEPT OF COMPUTER HARDWARE

By J.JEYASUTHAN. B.E.,

Basic Block diagram of a computer

MEMORY UNIT

PROCESSOR
Control Unit

INPUT UNIT

OUTPUT UNIT

ALU

Components of a control unit

 Program counter (PC): The PC holds the address of the next instruction to be executed. Instruction register (IR): The IR holds the actual instruction being executed currently by the computer. Memory address register (MAR): The MAR holds the address of a memory location. Memory data register (MDR): The MDR holds a data value that is being stored to or retrieved from the memory location currently addressed by the memory address register. Status register (SR): The SR indicates the results of an arithmetic and logic unit operation. For example: carry, overflow, negative.

INPUT DEVICES Key board Mouse Joystick Web Camera

OUTPUT DEVICES Monitor Printer Plotter Speaker

Scanner
Mic Light Pen

MEMORY UNITS

PRIMARY MEMORY ROM (Read Only Memory)

PROM ( Programmable Read Only Memory) EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory) EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory)

SECONDRY MEMORY HDD (Hard Disk Drive) FDD ( Floppy Disk Drive) CD ( Compact Disk Drive) Pen Drive Tape Drive

RAM (Random Access Memory) SRAM ( Static RAM)

DRAM ( Dynamic RAM)

EDO RAM (Extended Data Out RAM) SD RAM (Syncro Dynamic RAM) DDR SDRAM ( Double Data Rate SDRAM) DDR 2 RAM

The CPU-memory interaction

Fetch and execution cycle

The enclosed slot 1 processor card contains the central processing unit, (or CPU), with its level 1 cache memory. The central processing unit also contains the control unit and the arithmetic/logic unit, both working together as a team to process the computer's commands. The control unit controls the flow of events inside the processor. It fetches instructions from memory and decodes them into commands that the computer can understand. The arithmetic/logic unit handles all of the math calculations and logical comparisons. It takes the commands from the control unit and executes them, storing the results back into memory. These 4 steps, (fetch, decode, execute, and store), are what's called the "machine cycle" of a computer. These 4 basic steps are how the computer runs each and every program. The microprocessor's level 1 cache memory, is memory that is contained within the CPU itself. It stores the most frequently used instructions and data. The CPU can access the cache memory much faster than having to access the RAM, (or Random Access Memory). Below is a picture of what's inside of a Pentium 3 processor. The control unit, arithmetic/logic unit, and level 1 cache are contained within the center CPU chip. Level 2 cache memory is visible on the right-hand side of the processor card.

Level 1 cache memory is memory that is included inside of the CPU itself. It is usually smaller and faster than level 2 cache memory. Level 2 cache memory is memory between the RAM and CPU. It is used when the level 1 cache memory is full or is too small to hold the intended data. Originally it was not directly on the

all of the buildings together. Instead of streets and highways, the motherboard uses tiny electrical paths to connect each component of the computer together. These paths are called "buses." The more buses that connect to a component, the faster it can operate. Larger buses are able to operate faster than smaller buses. Buses work just like highways. Wider highways and highways with more lanes are able to carry more traffic than smaller highways and highways with less lanes. Many cities have a freeway. A freeway is designed so that large amounts of traffic can move quickly from one place to another. The motherboard also has a "freeway." It is called the "front side bus," (or FSB). It is the most important bus on the motherboard, because it connects the processor to the main memory and the Northbridge chipset. The faster the FSB is, the faster the computer can operate, since the processor is constantly using the main memory to store and retrieve information. Sometimes the FSB is also called the "system bus." Below is a diagram showing the front side bus in red. Keep in mind that on an actual motherboard, each line representing the buses would actually consist of many electrical paths instead of just one.

use two or more chips. Chipsets are like the motherboard's traffic cops. They direct the flow of data from one point to another. Each chip in the chipset has its own particular job. This is chip 1 of 2 chips in the 440BX chipset. It is called the "Northbridge." It is the more important of the two, because it links directly to the microprocessor. Above is a picture of the 440BX chipset. Below is Chip 1, the "Intel 82443BX PCI/AGP Controller." It is hidden under a heat sink that protects it from overheating.

The 82443BX Northbridge chip controls the data traffic between the microprocessor and the rest of the motherboard. It also controls the traffic to and from the AGP card. Both chips share in the task of controlling the PCI and main memory data flow. In the diagram below you can see the data flow paths mapped out for the chipset. Notice that the paths managed by chip 1 are shown in red. The duties of the Northbridge chip may vary slightly depending on the chipset. For some chipsets, the Northbridge may control the CPU, video, and main memory traffic, while the "Southbridge" chip may control the other traffic.

RAM is an abbreviation for Random Access Memory. RAM is the computer's main memory. The computer uses RAM constantly to temporarily store information while it is working with it. The photo above shows what a 128MB SDRAM 100MHz DIMM memory module looks like. SDRAM stands for Synchronous Dynamic Random Access Memory. SDRAM runs synchronously, (or at the same pace), with the processor's front side bus at 66MHz, 100MHz, or 133MHz, depending on what type of SDRAM the computer has. A bus is simply a connection between items on the motherboard. The speed of the the memory, or its data transfer rate, is how fast the data can travel between the RAM and the processor. The speed is measured in MHz, (or megahertz). One megahertz is one million frequency cycles per second. Data travels at a pace of 100 million cycles per second with 100MHz memory. SDRAM that runs at 100MHz is called PC100 memory. SDRAM that runs at 133MHz is called PC133 memory. Memory modules are available in 16MB, 32MB, 64MB, 128MB, 256MB, 512MB, 1GB, and 2GB capacities. Each is able to hold different amounts of temporary data. The 16MB module can hold 16MBs, (or 16,000,000 bytes), of data. The 256MB module can hold 256MBs, (or 256,000,000 bytes), of data. That's 16 times more than the 16MB module! The memory module shown above is a DIMM module. DIMM stands for Dual In-line Memory Module. The term DIMM has nothing to do with the speed or capacity of a memory module. It simply refers to the way the module is designed. DIMM modules consist of several DRAM chips. DIMM modules have

Expansion Slots

handle 64 bits of data at a time. ISA slots can only handle 32 bits of data at a time. PCI stands for "Peripheral Component Interconnect." A 64-bit PCI slot has 64 connections to the motherboard. Each connection is capable of handling 1 bit of data at a time. A 32-bit ISA slot has 32 connections to the motherboard and can handle only 32 bits of data at a time. Below is a picture of how a PCI card is installed.

Note: Older technology ISA slots were 8-bit and 16-bit. The later EISA, (or Extended ISA), slots are capable of 32-bit data transfer. Older PCI technology was 32-bit. The newer PCI technology is 64-bit.
Below is a picture of a SCSI PCI expansion card. SCSI stands for "Small Computer Interface System." With a SCSI expansion card, you can connect up to 15 different devices to one SCSI connection. SCSI is one of the fastest data transfer interfaces available. SCSI cards are available with transfer rates from 4MB per second, up to 320 MB per second. The Ultra320 SCSI-3 interface is the fastest, with a 320MB/sec data transfer rate. Below is a picture of a PCI SCSI expansion card.

Basic Input/Output System

BIOS stands for Basic Input/Output System. The photo above shows an example of what a built in BIOS program looks like. BIOS programs vary from computer to computer, but every computer has one. Without any disks or even a hard drive, the BIOS program is always available, written permanently on the BIOS chip. It is used to set up the computer's hardware. Every time you boot your computer, you have the option of entering "Setup." Setup is how you access the BIOS program. Only experienced users should alter the BIOS settings. Improper BIOS settings can cause major problems on a computer. The BIOS chip contains enough information to operate the computer all by itself. When the computer is first turned on (or booted), the BIOS program is in charge. After booting and performing a few system checks, the BIOS program turns the computer over to your operating system. Windows XP is an example of a common operating system. CMOS, which stands for Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor, is where the BIOS stores its information. The CMOS area is usually located on the Chipset, or the Real Time Clock Chip (not the CPU clock). Some BIOS Chips also allow you to save your settings to EEPROM. EEPROM stands for Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory. Read Only Memory, (or ROM), is normally just that, and can never be erased or changed. ROM memory retains its data even when the power is disconnected. EEPROM memory also retains its data when the power is disconnected, but it can be altered by electrically erasing it, so that new data can be entered. If the CMOS looses its BIOS information, the EEPROM can provide your BIOS with a backup copy of the computer's settings. Below is a picture of a BIOS chip. This chip is where the BIOS program is stored.

IDE and Panel Connectors

The Case