1

CHAPTER 1:
Vector Fields
ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS
THEORY
2
Scalar
Scalar: A quantity that has only magnitude.
For example time, mass, distance,
temperature and population are scalars.
Scalar is represented by a letter e.g., A, B


3
Vector
Vector: A quantity that has both magnitude and
direction.
Example: Velocity, force, displacement and electric
field intensity.
Vector is represent by a letter such as A, B, or
It can also be written as
where A is which is the magnitude and is unit
vector

a A A

=

4
Unit Vector
A unit vector along A is defined as a vector whose
magnitude is unity (i.e., 1) and its direction is along A.

It can be written as a
A
or



Thus


a

A
A
a A A
A
A
A
A
a

=
= =
| |
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Vector Addition
The sum of two vectors for example vectors A
and B can be obtain by moving one of them so
that its terminal point (tip) coincides with the
initial point (tail) of the other
B

initial
Terminal point
initial
Terminal point
A

B A

+
B A

+
A

6
Vector Subtraction
Vector subtraction is similarly carried out as
D = A B = A + (-B)


A
B

B A

Figure (a)
Figure (b)
Figure (c)
Figure (c) shows that vector D is a vector
that is must be added to B to give vector A
So if vector A and B are placed tail to tail
then vector D is a vector that runs from the
tip of B to A.
A
B

B A

A
B A

7
Vector multiplication
Scalar (dot ) product (AB)

Vector (cross) product (A X B)

Scalar triple product A (B X C)

Vector triple product A X (B X C)


8
Multiplication of a vector by a scalar
Multiplication of a scalar k to a vector A gives a vector
that points in the same direction as A and magnitude equal
to |kA|





The division of a vector by a scalar quantity is a
multiplication of the vector by the reciprocal of the scalar
quantity.

A k
A
A k
1 | | < k
1 | | > k
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Scalar Product
The dot product of two vectors and , written as
is defined as the product of the magnitude of and , and
the projection of onto (or vice versa).
Thus ;



Where is the angle between and . The result of dot
product is a scalar quantity.

B A

-
u cos | || | B A B A = -
10
Vector Product
The cross (or vector) product of two vectors A and B,
written as is defined as



where; a unit vector perpendicular to the plane that
contains the two vectors. The direction of is taken as
the direction of the right thumb (using right-hand rule)
The product of cross product is a vector

n B A B A
AB

sin | || | u =

n

11
Right-hand Rule
12
Dot product
If and then


which is obtained by multiplying A and B
component by component.
It follows that modulus of a vector is


z z y y x x
B A B A B A B A + + = -

) , , (
z y x
B B B B =

) , , (
z y x
A A A A =

2 2 2
| |
z y x
A A A A A A + + = - =

13
Cross Product
If A=(A
x
, A
y
, A
z
), B=(B
x
, B
y
, B
z
) then







z
y x
y x
y
x z
x z
x
z y
z y
z y x
z y x
z y x
a
B B
A A
a
B B
A A
a
B B
A A
B B B
A A A
a a a
B A
+ + =
=

z x y y x y z x x z x y z z y
a B A B A a B A B A a B A B A ) ( ) ( ) ( + + =
14
Cross Product
Cross product of the unit vectors yield:
y a z
x z y
z y x
a a a
a a a
a a a
=
=
=
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Example 1
Given three vectors P =
Q =
R =
Determine
a) (P+Q) X (P-Q)
b) Q(R X P)
c) P(Q X R)
d)
e) P X( Q X R)
f) A unit vector perpendicular to both Q and R
z x
a a 2
z y x
a a a 2 2 +
z y x
a a a + 3 2
QR
u sin
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Solution
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Solution (cont)
18
To find the determinant of a 3 X 3 matrix, we repeat the first two rows and
cross multiply; when the cross multiplication is from right to left, the result
should be negated as shown below. This technique of finding a determinant
applies only to a 3 X 3 matrix. Hence
Solution (cont)
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Solution (cont)
20
Solution (cont)
21
Solution (cont)
22
Cylindrical Coordinates
Very convenient when dealing with problems having
cylindrical symmetry.

A point P in cylindrical coordinates is represented as (,
, z) where
: is the radius of the cylinder; radial displacement from the z-axis
: azimuthal angle or the angular displacement from x-axis
z: vertical displacement z from the origin (as in the
cartesian system).
23

a
|
a
z
a
Cylindrical Coordinates
24
Cylindrical Coordinates
The range of the variables are
0 < , 0 < 2 , - < z <

vector in cylindrical coordinates can be written
as (A

,A

, A
z
) or A

a

+ A

+ A
z
a
z

The magnitude of is

2 2 2
| |
z
A A A A + + =
|

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Relationships Between Variables
The relationships between the variables (x,y,z) of the
Cartesian coordinate system and the cylindrical system (,
, z) are obtained as




So a point P (3, 4, 5) in Cartesian coordinate is the same
as?

z z
x y
y x
=
=
+ =

/ tan
1
2 2
|

z z
y
x
=
=
=
|
|
sin
cos
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Relationships Between Variables






So a point P (3, 4, 5) in Cartesian coordinate is the same as
P ( 5, 0.927,5) in cylindrical coordinate)

5
927 . 0 3 / 4 tan
5 4 3
1
2 2
=
= =
= + =

z
rad |

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Spherical Coordinates (r,,)
The spherical coordinate system is used
dealing with problems having a degree of
spherical symmetry.
Point P represented as (r,,) where
r : the distance from the origin,
: called the colatitude is the angle between z-axis and
vector of P,
: azimuthal angle or the angular displacement from
x-axis (the same azimuthal angle in cylindrical
coordinates).
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Spherical Coordinates
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The range of the variables are
0 r < , 0 < , 0 < < 2

A vector A in spherical coordinates written as
(A
r
,A

,A

) or A
r
a
r
+ A

+ A

a


The magnitude of A is


2 2 2
| |
u |
A A A A
r
+ + =

Spherical Coordinates (r,,)

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Relation to Cartesian coordinates system
x
y
z
y x
z y x r
1
2 2
1
2 2 2
tan
) (
tan

=
+
=
+ + =
|
u
u
| u
| u
cos
sin sin
cos sin
r z
r y
r x
=
=
=
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Relationship between cylinder and spherical
coordinate system
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Point transformation between cylinder and spherical
coordinate is given by




or



Point transformation
2 2
z r + =
z

u
1
tan

=
| | =
u sin r =
u cos r z = | | =
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Express vector B =

in Cartesian and cylindrical coordinates. Find B at (-3,
4 0) and at (5, /2, -2)


Example
| u
u a a a + + cos
10
r
r
r
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Differential Elements
In vector calculus the differential elements in length,
area and volume are useful.

They are defined in the Cartesian, cylindrical and
spherical coordinate
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Cartesian Coordinates


P Q



S R
dy
dz
dx
A
B
D C
x
x
y y
a
x

a
y

a
z

z
Differential displacement :
z y x
dza dya dxa l d + + =

D
i
f
f
e
r
e
n
t
i
a
l

e
l
e
m
e
n
t
s

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z
y
x
dxdy S d
dxdz S d
dydz S d
a
a
a
=
=
=

Differential normal area:

Cartesian Coordinates
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Differential
displacement
Differential
normal area
Differential
volume
z y x
dz dy dx l d a a a + + =

z
y
x
dxdy S d
dxdz S d
dydz S d
a
a
a
=
=
=

dxdydz dv =
Cartesian Coordinates
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Cylindrical Coordinates
Differential displacement :
z
dz d d l d a a a + + =
|
|

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Differential normal area:
z
a d d S d
dza d S d
dza d S d
|

|
|

=
=
=

Cylindrical Coordinates
40









Differential
displacement
Differential normal
area
Differential volume
z
dza a d a d l d + + =
|
|

z
a d d S d
dza d S d
dza d S d
|

|
|

=
=
=

dz d d dv | =
Cylindrical Coordinates
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Spherical Coordinates
| u | d r d sin =
Differential displacement :
| u
| u u a d r a rd dra l d
r
sin + + =

42
|
u
u
| u
| u u
a
a
a
rdrd S d
drd r S d
d d r S d
r
=
=
=

sin
sin
2
Differential normal area:
Spherical Coordinates
43
Differential
displacement
Differential
normal area
Differential
volume
| u
| u u a d r a rd dra l d
r
sin + + =

|
u
u
| u
| u u
a rdrd S d
a drd r S d
a d d r S d
r
=
=
=

sin
sin
2
| u u d drd r dv sin
2
=
Spherical Coordinates
44
1. The gradient of a scalar V, written as V
2. The divergence of a vector A, written as
3. The curl of a vector A, written as
4. The Laplacian of a scalar V, written as
Written as is the vector differential operator. Also
known as the gradient operator. The operator in useful in
defining:


Del Operator
A - V
V
A V
V
2
V
V
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G is the gradient of V. Thus


In cylindrical coordinates,



In spherical coordinates,
z y x a
z
V
+ a
y
V
+ a
x
V
= V = V grad
| u
| c
c
u
+
u c
c
+
c
c
= V a
V
sin r
1
a
V
r
1
a
r
V
V r
Gradient of Scalar
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Example :
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Divergence
In Cartesian coordinates,


In cylindrical coordinates,


In spherical coordinate,

z
z
y
y
x
x A A A
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
= - V A
z
A A
A
z
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
= - V
|

1
) (
1
A
| u
u
u u
|
u
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
= - V
A
r
A
r
A r
r r
A r
sin
1
) sin (
sin
1
) (
1
2
2
48
Example
49
In Cartesian coordinates,




In cylindrical coordinates,





z y x
z y x
A A A
z y x
A
c
c
c
c
c
c
= V
a a a
Curl of a Vector
z
z
A A A
z
a a a
|
|

c
c
c
c
c
c
= V
1
A
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Curl of a Vector
In spherical coordinates,






| u
| u
u
| u
u
u
A r rA A
r
a r ra a
r
r
r
) sin (
) sin (
sin
1
2
c
c
c
c
c
c
= V A
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Examples on Curl Calculation

) ( cos sin
2
xz xy e
z y x
a a a
xy
z y x
c
c
c
c
c
c
= V A
|
|
.
|

\
|
c
c

c
c
+ |
.
|

\
|
c
c

c
c
+
|
|
.
|

\
|
c
c

c
c
= V
y
A
x
A
x
A
z
A
z
A
y
A
x
y
z x
y
z
z y x
a a a xA
( ) ( ) ( )
xy
xe xy y xz xz z + + + = V cos sin cos 2 0 0 0
z y x
a a a xA
( ) ( )
xy
xe xy y xz z + = V cos 2 sin
z y
a a xA
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Laplacian of a scalar
The Laplacian of a scalar field V, written as
2
V is defined
as the divergence of the gradient of V.

In Cartesian coordinates,





2
2
2
2
2
2
2
z
V
y
V
x
V
V
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
= V
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In cylindrical coordinates,




In spherical coordinates,


2
2
2 2 2
2
2
2
V
sin r
1 V
sin
sin r
1
r
V
r
r r
1
V
| c
c
u
+
|
.
|

\
|
u c
c
u
u c
c
u
+
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
c
c
= V
Laplacian of a scalar
2
2
2
2
2
2
1 1
z
V V V
V
c
c
+
c
c
+
|
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
c
c
= V
|

54
References:

Richard S . Muller and Theodore I. Kamins
Device Electronics for Integrated Circuits

Jacob Milman, Christos C. Halkias
Integrated Electronics

54 54
Specialization is an art of knowing more and
more about less and less and finally knowing
everything about nothing - Zentill [ ]