Chapter 6: Geological Structures

INTRODUCTION

Over the past thousand million years of Earth history the crust of the Earth has been mobile. As a consequence many of the rocks that we see now near of at the surface, no matter what their origin have been squashed, stretched or fractured; they have been deformed. Deformation arises because large parts of the Earth (lithospheric plate) have been moving relative to each other throughout geological time. The movement of these plates generate stresses that lead to both compression (collide) and tension (break apart or stretched). The rocks comprising the crust respond to such stresses by undergoing changes of shape (strain), therefore various geological structures are developed which provide a record of type of deformation. Compressional, tensional and shearing forces acting on rocks may cause them to form: (a) Fold (b) Fractures (c) Joints

Deformation of rocks

There are three different kind of stress (Table 1):

(1) Compression (2) Tension (3) Shear

Every rock has a limit beyond which it cannot continue to respond to stress by bending and will therefore fracture as (Table 2): (1) Brittle (2) Ductile

The factors that govern the way a rock deform are as follows (Table 3):
(1) Confining pressure and temperature (2) Time over which the stress is applied

Table 1
Stresses Description

Compression compress or squeeze the rock body such as in the convergent tectonic plate. Tension forces pulling the rock apart such as in the divergent of the continent. Shear results from forces acting parallel but in opposite directions such as in folds.

Table 2
Fracture Description

Brittle
Ductile

rocks which simply breaks rather than deform plastically by application of stress. undergo considerable smooth deformation before they rupture.

Table 3
Factors Description

Confining Rock may behave in a brittle manner when pressure and near the surface of Earth where the temperature confining pressure and temperature are relatively low.
Time over which the stress is applied A rock may not respond plastically if the stress applied is rapid, but may undergo extensive plastic deformation if the stress applied is low but long sustained.

Types of deformation
6.2.1 6.2.2 6.2.3

Fractures Strike and dip Joints

Fractures

Faults are fractures which have had displacement of the rocks along them. The adjacent rock masses slipped past one another in response to tension, compression or shearing stress. Fault plane is the plane of dislocation along which movements occur during faulting. Fault commonly create zones of broken ground - weaker and less stable than the adjacent rock. Sudden movements along faults may cause earthquakes.

Fault

Fault

Fault categories

Categories of faults: (a) Normal fault (b) Reverse fault (c) Lateral fault

(d) Oblique slip fault

Note: (a) and (b) are also known as dip - slip faults and (c) are known as strike slip - fault.

Normal fault

Occurs most frequently in rocks that have been subjected to horizontal tensional force. One side of the layer move downwards relative to the other.

Reverse fault

Occurs when the crusts are compressed and one side of the layer moved upwards relative to the other.

Lateral fault

Involves the horizontal movement along the strike of the fault plane.

Oblique slip fault

Combination of dip slip and strike slip movements.

Strike and dip

Strike and dip is to describe the compass direction and the degree of inclination of a rock mass. Outcrop is an exposure of rock at the surface (or the area of a rock lying directly beneath a soil cover).

Contd

Definition (refer to Figure 6.7)

(1) Strike:-

The line formed by the intersection of horizontal plane (the water surface) and an inclined plane (the surface of the rock layer).
(2) Dip or dip angle:-

The maximum angular deviation of the inclined layer from horizontal. In other words, the maximal angle of slope of a tilted stratum measured directly downward from the horizontal plane.

The direction of dip is perpendicular to the strike.

Figure 6.7: Dip and strike

Natural example of strike and dip. The strike of the dipping rock surface is marked by its intersection with the water surface

Joints

These are rock fractures with no movement along them and tend to break a rock mass into a network of blocks. They are formed by tectonic stressing and are developed in nearly all rocks. Dominant fractures within sedimentary rocks are usually the bedding planes. Many bedding planes are very thin bands or partings of shale or clay between units of stronger rocks. Massive rocks have less fractures, joints or structural weaknesses.

Jointing in a folded stratum

Joints in granite slope

Erosion along parallel joint in Arches National Park, Utah

Folds

Folds is a bend or flexure in layered rocks. It is the most common kind of deformation in layered rocks usually well collision of developed in great mountain systems due to the collisions of tectonic plates. Upward folds are anticlines or downward synclines. An anticline is an up - arched or convex upward fold with the oldest rock layers in its core.

A syncline is a down - arched or concave upward fold in which the youngest rock layers are in its core.
They may be gentle, moderate or strong.

Folds may be rounded or angular.

Folded rocks in the Calico of southern California. Three folds are visible from left to right: a syncline, an anticline and another syncline. We can infer compression was responsible for these folds.

Syncline and anticline showing the axial plane, axis and fold limbs

Folds and their relationship to topography. Cross section illustrating that anticlines do not necessarily correspond to high and low areas of the surface. Notice that the folds even underlie the rather flat area.

A syncline is the peak of this mountain in Kootenay National Park, British Columbia, Canada. Lower on the left flank of the mountain, an syncline and another anticline are also visible.

Kink band fold

Recumbent fold

Folds categories
Categories of fold are: (1) Monocline

(2) Anticline
(3) Syncline (4) Overturned anticline and syncline

Monocline

Are folds in which horizontal or gently dipping bed are modified by simple steplike bends.

Anticline

Up-arched rocks in which the older rocks are in the center and the younger rocks are on the flanks.

Syncline

Folded downwards in which the younger beds in the center and the older rocks on the flanks diagram of folds.

Overturned anticline and syncline

Major fold types and elements of fold

Competent and Incompetent Strata

Folding involves brittle and ductile deformation. Competent rocks are folded rock strata which behave as brittle material, competent beds are folded by retaining their original thickness. Incompetent rocks are folded rock strata which flow as ductile material and usually composed of soft rocks or thinly bedded shales or thin beds of sandstone. They are usually strongly distorted and show rapid changes initial thickness upon folding.

Unconformity

This is the plane or break between two sequences or rocks with different dips. It indicates a period of earth movements and tectonic deformation between times of sediment deposition. It forms a major structural break - the older rocks must be more lithified and perhaps more metamorphosed, than the younger rocks above unconformity.

Unconformity boundary shows by the different rock structures

End of the Chapter 6

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