Brain and Behaviour

Neuron and Its Parts

Neuron: Individual nerve cell Dendrites: Receive messages from other neurons Soma: Cell body; body of the neuron Axon: Fiber that carries information away from the cell body Axon Terminals: Branches that link the dendrites and somas of other neurons

Fig. An example of a neuron, or nerve cell, showing several of its important features. The right foreground shows a nerve cell fiber in cross section, and the upper left inset gives a more realistic picture of the shape of neurons. The nerve impulse usually travels from the dendrites and soma to the branching ends of the axon. The neuron shown here is a motor neuron. Motor neurons originate in the brain or spinal cord and send their axons to the muscles or glands of the body.

The Nerve Impulse

Resting Potential: Electrical charge of an inactive neuron Threshold: Trigger point for a neurons firing Action Potential: Nerve impulse

FIGURE The electrical charge inside an axon is normally negative. The fluid surrounding an axon is normally positive. As an action potential passes along the axon, these charges reverse so that the interior of the axon briefly becomes positive.

FIGURE The interior of an axon. The right end of the top axon is at rest. Thus, it has a negative charge inside. An action potential begins when ion channels open and sodium ions (Na+) rush into the axon. In this drawing, the action potential would travel from left to right along the axon. In the lower axon, the action potential has moved to the right. After it passes, potassium ions (K+) flow out of the axon. This quickly renews the negative charge inside the axon, so it can fire again. Sodium ions that enter the axon during an action potential are pumped out more slowly. Removing them restores the original resting potential.

Synapses
Messages from one neuron to another pass over a microscopic gap called a synapse Synapse: Microscopic gap between two neurons over which messages pass

FIGURE A highly magnified view of a synapse. Neurotransmitters are stored in tiny sacs called synaptic vesicles. When a nerve impulse reaches the end of an axon, the vesicles move to the surface and release neurotransmitters. These molecules cross the synaptic gap to affect the next neuron. The size of the gap is exaggerated here; it is actually only about one millionth of an inch. Some transmitter molecules excite the next neuron, and some inhibit its activity.

Neurotransmitters
chemical messengers that traverse the synaptic gaps between neurons when released by the sending neuron, neurotransmitters travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing whether it will generate a neural impulse Receptor Site: Areas on the surface of neurons and other cells that are sensitive to neurotransmitters

Neural Regulators
Neural Peptides: Regulate activity of other neurons Enkephalins: Relieve pain and stress; similar to endorphins Endorphins: Released by pituitary gland; also help to relieve pain

Nerves and Neurons

Nerves: Large bundles of axons and dendrites Myelin: Fatty layer of tissue that coats axons
Multiple Sclerosis (MS) occurs when myelin layer is destroyed; numbness, weakness, and paralysis occur

Neurilemma: Thin layer of cells wrapped around axons outside brain and spinal cord; forms a tunnel where damaged fibers go as they repair themselves Neurogenesis: Production of new brain cells

Neural Networks
Central Nervous System (CNS): Brain and spinal cord Peripheral Nervous System: All parts of the nervous system outside of the brain and spinal cord Somatic System: Links spinal cord with body and sense organs; controls voluntary behavior Autonomic System: Serves internal organs and glands; controls automatic functions such as heart rate and blood pressure

FIGURE (a) Central and peripheral nervous systems. (b) Spinal nerves, cranial nerves, and the autonomic nervous system.

Two Divisions of the Autonomic System

Sympathetic: Arouses body; emergency system Parasympathetic: Quiets body; most active after an emotional event

FIGURE Sympathetic and parasympathetic branches of the autonomic nervous system. Both branches control involuntary actions. The sympathetic system generally activates the body. The parasympathetic system generally quiets it. The sympathetic branch relays its messages through clusters of nerve cells outside the spinal cord.

The Spinal Cord

Spinal Nerves: carry sensory and motor messages to and from the spinal cord Cranial Nerves: 12 pairs that leave the brain directly; also work to communicate messages

FIGURE Subparts of the nervous system.

FIGURE A sensory-motor arc, or re- flex, is set in motion by a stimulus to the skin (or other part of the body). The nerve impulse travels to the spinal cord and then back out to a muscle, which contracts. Such reflexes provide an automatic protective device for the body.

FIGURE The lobes of the cerebral cortex and the primary sensory, motor, and association areas on each. The top diagrams show (in cross section) the relative amounts of cortex assigned to the sensory and motor control of various parts of the body. (Each cross section, or slice, of the cortex has been turned 90 degrees so you see it as it would appear from the back of the brain.)

When the Brain Fails to Function Properly

Brocas Area: Related to language and speech production If damaged, person knows what s/he wants to say but cant say the words Wernickes Area: Related to language comprehension If damaged, person has problems with meanings of words, NOT pronunciation

Subcortex
Hindbrain (Brainstem) Medulla: Connects brain with the spinal cord and controls vital life functions such as heart rate and breathing Pons (Bridge): Acts as a bridge between medulla and other structures Influences sleep and arousal Cerebellum: Located at base of brain Regulates posture, muscle tone, and muscular coordination

Subcortex: Reticular Formation (RF)

Lies inside medulla and brainstem Associated with alertness, attention and some reflexes (breathing, coughing, sneezing, vomiting) Reticular Activating System (RAS): Part of RF that keeps the cortex active and alert

FIGURE This simplified drawing shows the main structures of the human brain and describes some of their most important features. (You can use the color code in the foreground to identify which areas are part of the forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain.)

Forebrain
Structures are part of Limbic System: System within forebrain closely linked to emotional response Thalamus: Relays sensory information to the cortex; switchboard Hypothalamus: Regulates emotional behaviors and motives (e.g., sex, hunger, rage, hormone release) Amygdala: Associated with fear responses Hippocampus: Associated with storing memories; helps us navigate through space

FIGURE Parts of the limbic system. Although only one side is shown here, the hippocampus and the amygdala extend out into the temporal lobes at each side of the brain. The limbic system is a sort of primitive core of the brain strongly associated with emotion.