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05 Introduction to Wine Business

Brad Frederickson

Fossil vines are the oldest scientific evidence of grapes, dating back 60 million years (LaMar, 2010)

Winemaking initially began in Caucasia or Mesopotamia (Georgia) (1) and in 6000 BC it was cultivated in Egypt and Phoenicia (2) in about 3000 BC. By 2000 BC it was in Greece (3) and by 1000 BC it was in Italy, Sicily and North Africa (4). (Wine growing areas of Cyprus, n.d.)
In the next 500 years it reached at least Spain, Portugal and the south of France (5) and probably southern Russia as well. (Wine growing areas of Cyprus, n.d.) Finally it spread with the Romans into northern Europe (6), getting as far as Britain. (Wine growing areas of Cyprus, n.d.) Vitis vinifera is native to coastal areas of Asia minor, the Black Sea, the Caucasus, the southern coast of the Caspian Sea and much of the Mediterranean (On the Origins of Wine, 2001)
The spread of the vine (Wine growing areas of Cyprus, n.d.)

 An ancient Persian tale credits a lady of the court

with discovering wine. The Princess had lost favour with the King and tried to poison herself by eating some table grapes that had spoiled in a jar. The grapes made her intoxicated and giddy and she fell asleep. She awoke to find the stresses that had previously troubled her life had dispersed. She returned to the cause of her relief which resulted in her behavior changing so much that she regained the Kings favour. He shared his daughters discovery court and ordered an increase in the production of spoiled grapes (LaMar, 2010)

 Through science it is believed that winemaking

was discovered by accident in the Neolithic Period around 8500-4000BC(On the Origins of Wine, 2001; LaMar, 2010). Earliest evidence of wine is located at an archaeological site east of Mesopotamia(On the Origins of Wine, 2001) Wine was known to be produced in Colchis (Georgia) as early as 8000BC (Wine, n.d.) In 2004, scientists found evidence of winemaking in Northern China on pottery shards dating from 7000BC Archaeologists have determined that wine was made around 5400BC in Irans remote Zargos mountains. Wine jars have been exhumed near the ruined village of Hajji Firuz Tepe and analysis has shown they contained retsina type wine (Wine, n.d.)

A wine jar from the Hajji Firuz site believed to have contained wine. (On the Origins of Wine, 2001)

 Evidence of wine was found in King Scorpion of

Southern Egypts tomb dating back to 3250BC. Scientists believe the wine was made in Jordan and transported by donkey to Egypt (Wine, n.d.) Texts from tombs in ancient Egypt prove that wine was widely used around 2700BC to 2500BC(LaMar, 2010) Art pieces attributed to the Xia Dynasty of 1600BC China include wine vessels (Wine, n.d.) Red wine jugs found in King Tutankhamens Tomb date back to 1323BC

Greek Winemaking The Greeks took winemaking to southern Italy and Sicily. They were impressed by the mild climate which was ideal for producing wine(Sanderson, n.d.) The Etrucans settled in central Italy and also made wine (Sanderson, n.d.) Wine spread through Europe with the spread of the Greek civilisation around 1600BC (LaMar, 2010) The Greeks used wicker baskets to press their grapes. They were filled with grapes were placed inside wooden or earthenware vats with a rope or plank above. Workers would then tread the grapes whilst holding the rope. This was commonly done to a tune played by flute (Ancient Greece and Wine, 2010) Once crushed, the grapes would be placed in large pithoi jars to carry out fermentation (Ancient Greece and Wine, 2010) Greeks also put freshly harvested grapes out on mats to dry into almost raisins before pressing (Ancient Greece and Wine, 2010) Other Greek inventions include blending with unripe grapes to produce a more acidic wine and the boiling of grape must as a way of adding sweetness to the wine (Ancient Greece and Wine, 2010)

Roman Winemaking The Romans improved on the techniques of the Etrucans and Greeks including improvement on Greek presses(Sanderson, n.d.) As the population of Rome increased from 3000BC, so did the demand for wine until the beginning of the Christian era(Sanderson, n.d.) The Romans discovered that aged wines tasted better (10-25 years old) and that wines kept in well sealed containers improved with age(Sanderson, n.d.)

A Roman amphora on the left and a wine jar (Sanderson, n.d.)

The Romans would tread the grapes as soon as possible once harvested. Juice obtained from treading was often the most valued and would be kept separate from the juice obtained from pressing. This free run juice was believed to be high in beneficial medicinal properties (Ancient Rome and Wine, 2010) Pressing was carried out in a special room with an elevated concrete platform that contained a shallow basin with raised curbs. This basin was made with a gradient in the floor so that the juice would run off to a collection point. Across the basin were long horizontal beams of wood with the front of the beams being attached by rope to a windlass apparatus. Once crushed, the grapes were pressed by placing them between the beams and winding down the windlass. This juice was also collected in the basin(Ancient Rome and Wine, 2010) Once pressed the grape must was stored in dolium, a large earthenware jar with a capacity of several thousand litres. These jars were partially buried in the floor of a barn or warehouse for fermentation, which could take anywhere from two to four weeks. After fermentation, Roman wine was stored in amphora vessel to be used for serving or further aging(Ancient Rome and Wine, 2010)

 In white wine production, the wines were aged on their lees in order to enhance

their flavour (Ancient Rome and Wine, 2010)

Chalk or marble dust was commonly added to reduce the acidity of a

wine(Ancient Rome and Wine, 2010)

In order to enhance sweetness, a portion of the must would be boiled to

concentrate the sugars then returned to the rest of the ferment. This boiling was also believed to help preserve the wine. Other methods of sweetening wine included adding lead, honey or withholding a portion of the unfermented must and returning it to the final wine (Ancient Rome and Wine, 2010)
Archaeologists have excavated numerous sites with underground jars,

suggesting that it was likely that the effects of temperature were known (LaMar, 2010)
Upon conquering the Germanic tribes, the Romans acquired the idea of using

wooden cooperage for the storage and transportation of wine (LaMar, 2010) It is thought the Romans may have been the first to use glass bottles and cork closures, as glass blowing became more common during this era (LaMar, 2010; Sanderson, n.d.)

 The Egyptians discovered the differences that pruning

imparted on wine quality and therefore developed the first arbors and pruning methods(LaMar, 2010) The Greeks matched vineyard soils with specific varieties and also learnt to control vine yields for improved quality over quantity. They also practiced using suckers and plant cuttings in the establishment of new vineyards(Ancient Greece and Wine, 2010) Greek vines were trained, with stacked vines for easier cultivation and harvesting, rather than letting them grow untrained in bushes or up trees(Ancient Greece and Wine, 2010)

 The Romans contributed to viticulture Props and trellises(Sanderson, n.d.) Classifying which grapes grew best in which

climate(Sanderson, n.d.) Increasing yields(Sanderson, n.d.) The Romans also exported their winegrowing techniques to other parts of Europe(Sanderson, n.d.)
From about 1000BC, the Romans made major contributions in classifying grape varieties and colours. They also observed and charted ripening characteristics, identified diseases and recognised different soil type preferences(LaMar, 2010)

The Romans developed irrigation and fertilisation

techniques that helped to increase yields and also became skilled at pruning(LaMar, 2010)

 In ancient Egypt wine was important in ceremonial life. Much

superstition surrounded wine-drinking in early Egyptian times, largely due to its resemblance to blood (History of Wine, 2007) Wine was an integral part of the Roman diet and winemaking became a precise business (History of Wine, 2007) In medieval Europe, wine was consumed by the church and the noble and merchant classes, whilst the general lower class people drank ale. Wine was necessary for the celebration of the Catholic Mass, therefore an assured supply was important (History of Wine, 2007) A housewife of the merchant class or a servant in a noble household would have served wine at every meal, and had a selection of reds and whites alike. Home recipes for meads from this period are still in existence, along with recipes for spicing and masking off-flavors in wines, including the simple act of adding a small amount of honey to the wine (History of Wine, 2007)

The Romans enjoyed wine, mixing it with large quantities of water in order to dilute the alcohol, which was much higher than today's wines(Sanderson, n.d.) They preferred sweet wines with most of their prized wines being whites(Sanderson, n.d.) Romans often added unusual flavours to wine including: Honey to make an aperitif called mulsum Herbs and spices Salt water Chalk (Sanderson, n.d.) Wine was an important article of Greek commerce and Greek doctors were some of the first to prescribe it (LaMar, 2010) The Greeks also learned to add herbs and spices to mask spoilage(LaMar, 2010)

 By the first century AD, the Roman empire was exporting

barrels of wine to Spain, Germany, England and Gaul (France) (LaMar, 2010) These areas soon began to develop their own vineyards so in order to eliminate competition with local wineries, the Roman Emperor banned the import of wine from France (LaMar, 2010) Over the next few centuries, France came to dominate the world wine market (LaMar, 2010) The vineyards in the Rhine Valley, Champagne and Burgundy were established by Monastic wineries and the survival of wine industry methods and traditions throughout the dark ages was attributed to the sacramental usage of wine (LaMar, 2010)

 By 1152, during the reign of Henry II, England had

become the main customer of Bordeaux. By the end of the Hundred Years War in 1453, the city of Calais was the only French land still controlled by the British. This resulted in trade between France and England almost ceasing (LaMar, 2010) Competition in the wine export market ultimately benefited from the political conflicts between England and France. From 1703 to 1860, tariffs restricted French wine imports into England which encouraged the import of Port from Portugal (LaMar, 2010)

 A sweet style of wine was highly prized in most ancient civilisations. The wines were

often very alcoholic which meant dilution with warm water or sea water was not uncommon. The Romans discovered the ability of wines to age, with older wines fetching higher prices than younger ones. They decided that the difference between an old and new wine was that an old wine had to be matured for at least a year (Ancient Rome and Wine, 2010).
Falernian was a wine that was particularly prized for its aging ability being said to

need at 10 years to mature but being at its best between 1520 years. The white wine from Surrentine was said to need at least 25 years (Ancient Rome and Wine, 2010).
Like the Greeks, the Romans often flavored their wine with herbs and spices and

were sometimes stored in resin coated containers which gave it a flavor similar to modern Retsina (Ancient Rome and Wine, 2010).
Aroma of the wines was important to the Romans and they often would experiment

with different techniques in order to enhance a wine's bouquet. Planting herbs like thyme and lavender in the vineyards was a technique the Romans acquired from southern Gaul and it was believed the flavours would transfer through the ground to the fruit of the grapevines (Ancient Rome and Wine, 2010).

 Another technique widely practiced was to store amphorae in a smoke chamber

called fumarium to add smokiness to their flavour (Ancient Rome and Wine, 2010).
The term "wine" covered a broad spectrum of wine based drinks of varying

quality. The different quality rankings were determined by the amount of pure grape juice used to make the wine and how diluted the wine was when served. The highest quality wines were reserved for the upper class Romans (Ancient Rome and Wine, 2010).
Below this was a wine called posca which was made from a mixture of water

and sour wine that hadnt quite turned to vinegar. It was less acidic than vinegar, yet still had some of the aromas and texture of wine. This was commonly used as part of the rations for the Roman soldiers as it was fairly low in alcohol. Each soldier receiving about one litre per day (Ancient Rome and Wine, 2010).
The next lowest quality wine was lora. This was made by taking the skins of the

grapes once they had been pressed twice and adding water to soak them for a day before being pressed again. This wine was generally given to slaves (Ancient Rome and Wine, 2010).

 Wine has a long history with some of the early

discoveries of wine growing and making being the basis for modern winemaking techniques. Ancient civilisations incorporated wine into their everyday diets thus developing and improving their techniques for growing and making wine, which ultimately helped the industry evolve and spread throughout most of the world.

 Ancient Greece and Wine. (2010, July 27). Retrieved July 28, 2010, from

Wikipedia: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greece_and_wine Ancient Rome and Wine. (2010, August 4). Retrieved August 13, 2010, from Wikipedia: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Rome_and_wine History of Wine. (2007, March 19). Retrieved July 28, 2010, from Encyclo Wine: http://www.encyclowine.org/?title=History_of_wine LaMar, J. (2010, July 6). Wine History. Retrieved July 28, 2010, from Professional Friends of Wine: http://www.winepros.org/wine101/history.htm On the Origins of Wine. (2001). Retrieved July 28, 2010, from Greek Winemakers: http://www.greekwinemakers.com/czone/history/1origins.shtml Sanderson, L. A. (n.d.). A Short History of Italian Wine. Retrieved July 28, 2010, from Life in Italy.com: http://www.lifeinitaly.com/wines/roman-history.asp Wine growing areas of Cyprus. (n.d.). Retrieved July 5, 2010, from Cyprus Wine: http://www.windowoncyprus.com/wines+.htm Wine. (n.d.). Retrieved July 28, 2010, from Timeline: http://timelinesdb.com/listevents.php?subjid=304&title=Wine