Organizational Behavior

Organization Behaviour
Introduction
2 Learning
Definition: any permanent change in behaviour
that occurs as a result of experience (Robbins) A relatively permanent change in knowledge or behavior that results from practice or experience (Jones) A process through which individuals change their behaviour based on their experiences in a situation (Hitt)
Learning
Relatively permanent change in capabilities
Process of behavior change based on positive or
negative experiences Occurs only when changes in behavior happen Driven by experience with a particular situation
Theories of learning
Classical conditioning
Where an individual responds to a stimulus that
would not ordinarily produce such a response Learning that takes place when the learner recognizes the connection between an unconditioned stimulus and a conditioned stimulus.
Stimulus
Unconditioned Stimulus: Anything that
produces an unconditioned response.

Conditioned Stimulus: A neutral stimulus that,
as a result of being paired with an unconditioned stimulus, elicits a response.
Response
Unconditioned Response: A response that
occurs naturally in the presence of a given stimulus.

Conditioned Response: A response that is
called forth by a previously neutral stimulus (the conditioned stimulus.)
Theories of learning-contd
Operant Conditioning:
A type of conditioning in which desired voluntary
behaviour leads to a reward or prevents a punishment (Robbins) Learning that takes place when the learner recognizes the connection between a behavior and its consequences (Jones)
Operant conditioning: an explanation for
consequence based learning that assumes that learning results from simple conditioning and that higher mental functioning is irrelevant
Operant Conditioning
Reinforcement based
Behavior is learned as a function of its consequence

Roots in the late 1800s with animals Learning results from simple conditioning, not from
higher mental functioning
Theories of learning-contd
Social learning theory
It is an extension of operant conditioning-as it
assumes that behaviour is a function of consequences-it also acknowledges the existence of observational learning and the importance of perception in learning The view that individuals can learn through observation and experience
Social learning theory

An explanation for consequence based learning
that acknowledges the higher mental functioning of human beings and the role that such functioning can play in learning A learning theory that takes into account the fact that thoughts and feelings influence learning.
Social Learning
Humans can observe others in a situation and learn
from what they see No direct experience to a specific situation is needed to understand the behavior and its consequences Learning can result from higher mental functioning
Contingencies of Reinforcement
The Situation Behavioral Response Consequences of the Behavior
Positive consequences, or removal of negative ones, reinforces behavioral response
New Response to the Situation
Aversive consequences lead to avoidance of the same behavioral response, or to new responses to similar situations in the future
Adapted from Exhibit 4-1: Effects of Reinforcing Consequences on Learning New Behaviors
Positive Reinforcement
A reinforcement contingency in which a behavior
is followed by a positive consequence, thereby increasing the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated in the same or similar situations Administering positive consequences to workers who perform the desired behavior.
Negative Reinforcement
is followed by the absence of a previously encountered negative consequence; thereby increasing the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated in the same or similar situations Removing negative consequences to workers who perform the desired behavior.
Punishment
is followed by a negative consequence, thereby reducing the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated in the same or similar situations Administering negative consequences to workers who perform the undesirable behavior.
Punishment Guidelines
Use only if necessary Deliver as quickly as possible after

the undesired event Focus on specific behaviors that have been made clear to the recipient Deliver in an objective, impersonal fashion Listen to the person before taking action
Extinction
is followed by the absence of a previously encountered positive consequence; thereby reducing the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated in the same or similar situations Removing whatever is currently reinforcing the undesirable behavior.
Schedules of Reinforcement
Continuous schedulereinforcement follows
each instance of desired behavior Intermittent schedulereinforcement does not follow each instance of desired behavior
Fixed intervalreinforcement based on fixed unit of
lapsed time Variable intervalreinforcement based on varying lapses of time Fixed ratioreinforcement based on consistent number of instances of the desired behavior Variable ratioreinforcement after desired behavior has occurred a variable number of times
Adapted from Exhibit 4-2: Schedules of Reinforcement
Continuous reinforcement: A reinforcement
schedule in which a reward occurs after each instance of a behaviour or set of behaviours Reinforcing a desired behaviour each time it is demonstrated
Intermittent reinforcement: A reinforcement
schedule in which a reward does not occur after each instance of a behaviour or set of behaviours reinforcing a desired behaviour often enough to make that behaviour worth repeating but not every time that it is demonstrated
Intermittent Schedules
Fixed interval
Spacing rewards at uniform time intervals
Variable interval
Distributing rewards in time so that reinforcements are
unpredictable
Fixed ratio
after a constant number of responses are given a reward is
initiated
Variable ratio
When reward varies relative to the behaviour of the individual
OB Mod
The systematic application of the principles of operant conditioning for teaching and managing important organizational behaviors. The application of reinforcement concepts to individuals in the work setting
Organizational Behavior Mod

Also known as performance management, a formal procedure that focuses on improving task performance through positive reinforcement of desired behaviors and elimination of undesired behaviors
The Basic Steps of O.B. Mod.

Identify the behavior to be learned.
Measure the frequency of the behavior.

Perform a functional analysis. Develop and apply a strategy. Measure the frequency of the behavior.
OB Mod
A formal procedure focused on improving task performance through positive reinforcement of desired behaviors and extinction of undesired behaviors
Exhibit 4-3 Shaping Behavior Through OB Modification
OB Mod Part 1
Adapted from Exhibit 4-3: Shaping Behavior Through OB Modification
OB Mod Part 2
OB Mod Part 3
Advanced Learning Concepts

Limited opportunities to observe the
consequences of an action Unclear feedback Learning from failure
Low Probability-High Consequence Events

Experiencing a particular situation only once or
not at all limits the opportunity to try different approaches (behaviors and consequences) for dealing with it If an approach cannot be used multiple times, one cannot learn the likelihood of positive or negative consequences of the approach Consequently people exposed to low probabilityhigh consequence events may have faulty learning
Unclear Feedback
Situations often involve multiple consequences,
such that one cannot clearly infer how the individual consequences affect behavior Simulation may be an approach for separating out the effects of the consequences on the behavior
A representation of a real system that allows
associates and managers to try various actions and receive feedback on the consequences of those actions
Causal Relationships at a Sports Club
Exhibit 4-4 Casual Relationships at a Sports Club
Intelligent Failure
Intelligent failures that result in learning are the
result of certain kinds of actions

1. Actions are thoughtfully planned.
2. Actions have a reasonable chance of producing a
successful outcome. 3. Actions are typically modest in scale, to avoid putting the entire firm or substantial parts of it at risk. 4. Actions are executed and evaluated in a speedy fashion, since delayed feedback makes learning more difficult. 5. Actions are limited to domains that are familiar enough to allow proper understanding of the effects of the actions.
Perception
A process that involves sensing various aspects
of a person, task, or event and forming impressions based on selected inputs. The process by which individuals select, organize, and interpret the input from their senses. Schemas, motivational state, and mood all play a part in perception.
Perception
Three basic stages:
Sensing various characteristics
Selecting facts
Organizing into useful concepts
Three Stages of Perception

Perception: A process that involves sensing
various aspects of a person, task, or event and forming impressions based on selected facts
1
Sensing
Stage 1: Sensing various characteristics of a person, task, or event Touch Sight Smell Taste Hearing

1
Sensing
2
Selecting
Stage 2: Selecting from the data those facts that will be used to form the perception Selective or biased perception? Accurate perception requires selection of all relevant data

1
Sensing
2
Selecting
3
Organizing
Stage 3: Organizing the selected data into useful concepts pertaining to the object or person Concepts help individuals predict the consequences of their behaviors Formation of everyday concepts help people deal successfully with problems
Perception
Perceiver: The person trying to interpret some observation that he or she has just made. Target: Whatever the perceiver is trying to make sense of. Situation: The context in which the perception takes place.
Characteristics of the Perceiver That Affect Perception
Perceptions of People
Nature of Perceiver
Nature of Situation
Nature of Perceiver Familiarity with Person Feeling Toward Person General Emotion State Perception of the Person Problems in Person Perception Logical Error Halo Effect Projecting Stereotyping
Nature of the Situation

General Nature of the Other Person Apparent Intentions of the Other Person Consequences of the Interaction
Adapted from Exhibit 4-5 Person Perception
Nature of Perceiver Familiarity with the Other Person Feelings Toward the Other Person General Emotion State Perception of the Person Problems in Person Perception Implicit Theories Halo Effect Projecting Stereotyping
Nature of the Situation

General Nature of the Other Person Apparent Intentions of the Other Person Consequences of the Interaction
Adapted from Exhibit 4-5: Person Perception
Problems in Perception
Logical error
Individual forms an impression of a person on the
basis of only one or two central characteristics

Halo effect
Individual assesses a person positively or
negatively in all situations based on an existing general assessment of the person
Problems in Perception
Projecting
individual assumes that others share his or her
values and beliefs

Stereotyping
Individual has preconceived ideas about a group
and assumes that all members of that group share the same characteristics
Contrast Effects
The perceivers perceptions of others distort the perceivers perception of a target. For example, a managers perception of an average subordinate is likely to be lower if that subordinate is in a group with very high performers rather than in a group with very low performers.
Halo Effect
The perceivers general impression of a target distorts his or her perception of the target on specific dimensions. For example, a subordinate who has made a good overall impression on a supervisor is rated as performing high-quality work and always meeting deadlines even when work is flawed.
Other
Projection
Stereotyping
Attribution Theory
A group of theories that describe how people
explain the causes of behavior. Internal Attribution assigns the cause of behavior to some characteristic of the person.
For example, ability, personality or motivation.
External Attribution assigns the cause of
behavior to factors external to the person.

For example, task difficulty or luck.
Attributions of Causality
Attributions affected by perceptions of Consistency Consensus Distinctiveness Internal attributions
Personality Attitudes Abilities
External attributions
Organizational resources Luck Uncontrollable
influences
High Distinctiveness Low High Individual Behavior
External Internal
External
Internal
Consensus
Low
High Consistency Low
Internal External
Adapted from Exhibit 4-6 Attribution Theory
Attributions of Success and Failure

Fundamental attribution error
Perception problem in which an individual is too
likely to attribute the behavior of others to internal rather than external causes
Self-serving bias
Perception problem in which an individual is too
likely to attribute the failure of others to internal causes and the successes of others to external causes
Task Perception
Perceptions of ones job has important
implications for behavior and outcomes Task perceptions have been linked to mood, intrinsic motivation and job performance Perceptions of tasks develop through subjective and sometimes idiosyncratic processes
External-Internal Attribution
Success and Failure
Internal-External Attribution
Consistency
Consensus
Distinctiveness
Distinctiveness
High
External Internal External Internal
Low High Individual Behavior Consensus Low High Consistency Low
Internal
External
Adapted from Exhibit 4.6 Attribution Theory
Attributions of Success and Failure

Fundamental Attribution Error
Self-Serving Bias
Attributional Biases
Fundamental attribution error - the tendency to
overattribute behavior to internal rather than external causes when judging others.
Attributional Biases
Actor-observer effect - the tendency to attribute
the behavior of others to internal causes and to attribute ones own behavior to external causes. Self-serving attribution - the tendency to take credit for successes and avoid blame for failures.
Shortcuts in judging others

Selective perception
Task Perception
Perceptions of tasks develop through subjective
and sometimes idiosyncratic processes Intelligence, age and gender influence perception of tasks Levels of satisfaction play a role
3 Personality
Definition: the sum total of the ways in which an
individual reacts and interacts with others The pattern of relatively enduring ways in which a person feels, thinks, and behaves. Based on:
Environment Heredity
Fundamentals of Personality
A stable set of characteristics representing internal properties of an individual, which are reflected in behavioral tendencies across a variety of situations. Three basic beliefs:
Relatively enduring Major determinants of ones behavior Influence ones behavior across wide variety of
situations Not all in agreement. Some believe personalities can experience changes and we may behave differently from situation to situation.
Personality traits are individual psychological
characteristics that are relatively enduring introversion, for example, will probably remain for a long time.
Personality traits are major determinants of ones
behavior introverted person will likely be withdrawn and exhibit non-assertive behavior. Personality traits influence ones behavior across a wide variety of situations an introverted person will be withdrawn and non-assertive at a party, in class, in sports activities, and at work.
Personality
Personality
A stable set of characteristics representing internal
properties of an individual, which are reflected in behavioral tendencies across a variety of situations
Relatively enduring
Major determinants of ones behavior

Influence ones behavior across wide variety of situations
Determinants of Personality Development

Heredity
Study of identical twins
Assessments of newborns Genes
Environment
Social exposures Physiological forces Socioeconomic factors
Determinants of Personality
Nature: Biological heritage, and genetic makeup.
Nurture: Life experiences.

Environment
Social exposures Physiological forces Socioeconomic factors
The Interaction of Personality and Situational Factors
Personality Traits
Enduring characteristics that describe an
individuals behaviour
The Big Five Model

Extroversion
Conscientiousness
Agreeableness Neuroticism Openness to Experience
Big Five Personality Traits

Extraversion Conscientiousness
Personality
Openness to Experience
Agreeableness
Emotional Stability
Adapted from Exhibit 5-1: The Big Five Personality Traits
Extraversion
Conscientiousness
Personality
Openness to experience Emotional stability
Agreeableness
Adapted from: Exhibit 5.1 The Big Five Personality Traits

Extraversion
Outgoing and derives energy from being around
people
Conscientiousness
Focuses on goals and works toward them in
disciplined manner
Agreeableness
Easygoing and tolerant

Emotional stability
Easily copes with stressful situations or heavy
demands
Openness to experience
Seeks new experiences and thinks creatively about
the future
Extroversion
The tendency to experience positive
emotional states and feel good about oneself and the world around one; also called positive affectivity. Specific traits include positive emotions, gregariousness, and warmth The degree to which an individual is outgoing and derives energy from being around people enjoys being around other people, is warm to others, speaks up in group settings, maintains a vigorous pace, likes excitement, and is cheerful.
Conscientiousness
The extent to which a person is careful,
scrupulous, and persevering. Specific traits include competence, order and self-discipline. The degree to which an individual focuses on goals and works toward them in a disciplined way feels capable, is organized, is reliable, possesses a drive for success, focuses on completing tasks, and thinks before acting
Agreeableness
The tendency to get along well with others.
Specific traits include trust,
straightforwardness and tender-mindedness. The degree to which an individual is easygoing and tolerant believes in the honesty of others, is straightforward, is willing to help others, tends to yield under conflict, exhibits humility, and is sensitive to the feelings of others
Neuroticism/ Emotional stability

The tendency to experience negative
emotional states and view oneself and the world around one negatively; also called negative affectivity. Specific traits include anxiety, selfconsciousness, and vulnerability. The degree to which an individual easily handles stressful situations and heavy demands is relaxed, is slow to feel anger, rarely becomes discouraged, rarely becomes embarrassed, resists unhealthy urges associated with addictions, and handles crises well
Openness to Experience
The extent to which a person is original, has
broad interests, and is willing to take risks. The extent to which a person is original, has broad interests, and is willing to take risks. The degree to which an individual seeks new experiences and thinks creatively about the future has a vivid imagination, has an appreciation for art and beauty, values and respects self and others, prefers variety to routine, has broad intellectual curiosity, and is open to re-examining closely held values
Cognitive and Motivational Properties of Personality

Cognitive Properties
Perceptual and thought processes Affect how one typically processes information
Motivational Properties
Stable differences Energize and maintain overt behaviors
Cognitive and Motivational Properties of Personality

Authoritarianism Locus of Control
Self-Monitoring
Cognitive and Motivational Concepts

Achievement Motivation Approval Motivation
Adapted from Exhibit 5-3: Cognitive and Motivational Concepts of Personality
Cognitive Concepts
Locus of control degree to which an
individual attributes control of events to self or to external factors Authoritarianism degree to which an individual believes in conventional values, obedience to authority, and legitimacy of power differences in society Self-Monitoring degree to which an individual attempts to present the image he or she thinks others want to see in a given situation
Cognitive Concepts
Locus of control
Tendency to attribute the cause or control of events
to either
Oneself Factors in the external environment
Internals believe they can control what happens to
them Externals believe what happens to them is more a matter of luck or fate, rather than their own behavior
Locus of Control
External Locus of Control: describes people
who believe that fate, luck, or outside forces are responsible for what happens to them. Internal Locus of Control: describes people who believe that ability, effort, or their own actions determine what happens to them.
Cognitive Concepts
Authoritarianism
Degree to which an individual believes in Conventional values Obedience to authority Legitimacy of power differences in society People scoring high on authoritarianism may be
effective leaders in jobs requiring managers to make most decisions and where there are many rules governing behavior
Cognitive Concepts
Self-monitoring
Degree to which people attempt to present the
image they think others want to see in the given situation High-self monitors want to be seen as others want them to be Low self monitors want to be seen as themselves, not as others want them to be
Cognitive Concepts
Self-Monitoring: The extent to which people try
to control the way they present themselves to others. Proactive personality: people who identify opportunities, show initiative, take action, and persevere until meaningful change occurs
Motivational Concepts
Approval Motivation degree to which an
individual is concerned about presenting self in a socially desirable way in evaluative situations Achievement Motivation degree to which an individual desires to perform in terms of a standard of excellence or to succeed in competitive situations
Approval motivation
Concerned about presenting one-self in a socially
desirable way in evaluative situations Persons high in approval motivation tend to

Be concerned about the approval of others Conform and get along Respond to personality tests in socially desirable ways (may
fake their answers according to perceived desirability)
Achievement motivation
The need for achievement (n-Ach)
Desire to perform in terms of a standard of
excellence Desire to succeed in competitive situations Persons high in the need to achieve
Set goals Accept responsibility for both success and failure Focus on task excellence rather than on power
Major Attributes
Core self evaluation: degree to which individuals
like or dislike themselves, whether they see themselves as capable and effective, and whether they feel they are in control. Self-Esteem: The extent to which people have pride in themselves and their capabilities.
Type A Personality: A person who has an intense desire to achieve, is extremely competitive, and has a strong sense of urgency. Type B Personality: A person who tends to be easygoing and relaxed.
Individual Behaviour
Ability: The mental or physical capacity to do something.
Physical Ability Cognitive (intellectual) Ability
Physical ability
Strength factors
Dynamic strength Trunk strength-abdominal muscles Static strength-force against external objects Explosive strength
Physical ability
Flexibility factors
Extent-movement front and back Dynamic-rapidity
Other
Body co-ordination; balance and stamina
Ability-job fit
Employee performance is enhanced when there
is a high body-job fit
Other (biographical) characteristics

Age
Gender
Race Tenure
Intelligence
General mental ability to develop and understand concepts, particularly those that are more abstract and complex.
Intelligence
What is it?
Number aptitude
Verbal comprehension Perceptual speed Spatial visualization Deductive reasoning Inductive reasoning Memory
General mental ability used in complex information processing
Intelligence
Intelligence Number aptitude Verbal comprehension Preceptual speed Spatial visualisation
Deductive reasoning
Inductive reasoning Memory
Verbal Comprehension
Number Aptitude Areas of Perceptual Speed
Intelligence
Memory
Spatial Visualization
Deductive Reasoning
Inductive Reasoning
Number aptitude the ability to handle
mathematics Verbal comprehension the ability to understand written and spoken words Perceptual speed the ability to process visual data quickly Spatial visualization the ability to imagine a different physical configuration for example, to imagine how a room would look with the furniture rearranged
Deductive reasoning the ability to draw a
conclusion or make a choice that logically follows from existing assumptions and data Inductive reasoning the ability to identify, after observing specific cases or instances, the general rules that govern a process or that explain an outcome for example, to identify the general factors that play a role in a successful product launch after observing one product launch in a single company Memory the ability to store and recall previous experiences
Attitudes
A persistent tendency to feel and behave in a
favorable or unfavorable way toward a specific person, object, or idea. Work Attitudes: Collections of feelings, beliefs, and thoughts about how to behave in ones job and organization.
Attitudes
A persistent tendency to feel and behave in a favorable or unfavorable way toward a specific person, object, or idea.
Important Conclusions
Reasonably stable Directed toward some person, object or idea Relates to ones behavior toward that object
or person
People tend to behave in ways that are

consistent with their feelings
Behaviors are also influenced by

motivational forces and situational factors
Influence of Attitudes on Behavior

Object, Person, or Idea
Attitude Toward Object, Person, or Idea
Behavior Toward Object, Person, or Idea
Other Influences
Adapted from Exhibit 5-5: Influence of Attitudes on Behavior
Essential Elements of Attitudes
Cognitive
Affective
Behavioral
Cognitive - Facts we have gathered and
considered about the object, person, or idea Affective - Feelings one has about the object or person Behavioral - Intention to act in certain ways toward the object of the attitude
Components of Work Attitudes

Affective Component: How a worker feels
about work. Cognitive Component: What a worker believes to be true about work. Behavioral Component: What a worker thinks about how to behave at work.
Formation of Attitudes
Learning Self-Perceptions
Need for Consistency
Learning - experience and interaction with the
object of the attitude that results in rewards or punishments Self-perceptions - observations of ones own behavior Need for consistency - preference for ones attitudes to be consistent with one another
Self-perception theory
Argues that attitudes are used, after the fact, to
make sense of an action that has already occurred.
Formation of Consistent Attitudes

Accounting
Dan
Dans new colleague
Formation of a consistent work attitude

Exhibit 5-6: Formation of Consistent Attitudes
Dan likes accounting and has a favorable attitude
towards accounting. Dan works with a new person who dislikes accounting. Dan may form a negative attitude about his new colleague and towards those who dont like accounting.
Important Workplace Attitudes
Job Satisfaction
Organizational Commitment
Major job attitudes

Job satisfaction: a positive feeling about ones job
resulting from an evaluation of its characteristics Job involvement: the degree to which a person identifies with a job, actively participates in it, and considers performance important to self-worth Organisational commitment
Job satisfaction: Consequences

Exit
Voice
Loyalty Neglect/apathy
Job satisfaction: Consequences

Satisfaction and performance
Satisfaction and OCB

Satisfaction and customer Satisfaction and absenteeism Satisfaction and turnover
Organisational commitment
The degree to which an employee identifies with
a particular organization and its goals and wishes to maintain membership in the organisation
Affective commitment: emotional attachment Continuance commitment: perceived economic
value Normative commitment: an obligation to remain with the organisation for moral or ethical reasons
Reasons for Commitment

Normative Commitment Affective Commitment Continuance Commitment
Attitude Change
Persuasive communication
Attitude Change
Cognitive dissonance: any incompatibility between
two or more attitudes or between behaviour and attitudes Does behaviour always follow for attitudes? mediating variables:
Importance of the attitude Specificity Accessibility Social pressures Direct experience
Persuasive Communication
Message Communicator Situation Target
Qualities For Attitude Change

Communicators overall credibility Trust of the intentions of the communicator Similar interests or goals Attractiveness of the communicator
Sometimes it is the message
Cognitive Dissonance
An uneasy feeling produced when a person behaves in
a manner inconsistent with an existing attitude Three key conditions for change:
The behavior must be substantially inconsistent

with the attitude The inconsistent behavior must cause harm or have a negative consequence for others The inconsistent behavior must be voluntary and not forced
Values
Abstract ideals related to proper life goals and
methods for reaching those goals More general than attitudes Not related to specific objects or situations Abstract ideals May underlie groups of attitudes
Types of Values
Means values
(Behaviors one ought to use)
Ambition and hard work Open-mindedness Cheerfulness Competence Cleanliness and others
End values
(Personal goals one ought to have)
Prosperity Stimulating, active life Achievement World peace Harmony in nature and art and others
Types of Personal Values
Exhibit 5-7
End (Goal) Values Prosperity Stimulating, active life Achievement World peace Harmony in nature and art Equality Personal and family security Freedom Happiness
Means (Behavior) Values Ambition and hard work Open-mindedness Competence Cheerfulness Cleanliness Courageousness Forgiving nature Helpfulness Honesty
Adapted from Exhibit 5-6 Formation of Consistent Attitudes
Exhibit 5-7
End (Goal) Values Inner peace Mature love National security Pleasure and enjoyment Religion and salvation Self-respect Social respect Friendship Wisdom
Means (Behavior) Values Imagination Independence and self-reliance Intelligence Rationality Affection and love Obedience and respect Courtesy Responsibility Self-discipline
Adapted from Exhibit 5-6 Formation of Consistent Attitudes
Values
Hofstedes Model of National Culture
Individualism versus Collectivism Power Distance Achievement versus Nurturing Orientation
(masculinity vs. femininity) Uncertainty Avoidance Long-Term versus Short-Term Orientation
Hofstedes Model
Individualism - values individual achievement,
freedom, and competition. Collectivism - values group harmony, cohesiveness, and consensus. Power Distance - the degree to which a country accepts the fact that power in institutions and organisations is distributed unequally.
Hofstedes Model
Achievement Orientation - valuing assertiveness,
performance, success, and competition.

Nurturing Orientation - valuing quality of life, warm
personal relationships, and service and care for the weak.
Hofstedes Model
Uncertainty Avoidance - degree of tolerance for
uncertainty and willingness to take risks.

Long-Term Orientation - valuing thrift in saving and
persistence in achieving goals. Short-Term Orientation - valuing personal stability and living for the present.
Hofstedes Model
Example -- United States vs India
US
Power Distance Individualism Achievement Orientation Uncertainty Avoidance Long-Term Orientation
Ind.
Low High High Low Low
High Low High Low High
4,5 Motivation
What is motivation?
Processes that account for an individuals intensity, direction and persistence of effort in toward attaining a goal.
Focus here on organisational goals

Intensity, direction persistence
What is Motivation?
Forces coming from within a person that account for the willful direction, intensity, and persistence of the persons efforts toward achieving specific goals, where achievement is not due solely to ability or to environmental factors
Definition
The psychological forces that determine the direction of a persons behavior in an organization, a persons level of effort, and a persons level of persistence.
Definition-contd.
Direction of Behavior - Which behaviors does a
person choose to perform in an organization? Level of Effort - How hard does a person work to perform a chosen behavior? Level of Persistence - When faced with obstacles, roadblocks, and stone walls, how hard does a person keep trying to perform a chosen behavior successfully?
Equation
Persons level of performance is a function (f) of both ability and motivation:
Performance = f (Ability x Motivation)
Environmental factors also play a role
Theories of Motivation
Content Theories
Maslows need hierarchy
Alderfers ERG theory

McClellands need theory Herzbergs two-factor theory
Process Theories
Expectancy theory Equity theory Goal-setting theory
Need Theories
A group of content theories about work motivation
that focus on workers needs as the sources of motivation. These theories attempt to explain what motivates workers.
Maslow
Best known theory of motivation in management
circles Hierarchy of five needs:

Physiological Safety Social or Belongingness Esteem Self-Actualisation
Lower order needs and higher order needs
Maslows Need Hierarchy

SelfActualization Esteem Needs
Social and Belongingness Needs

Safety Needs
Physiological Needs
Maslow-contd.
Physiological Needs
Basic needs for things such as food, water and
shelter that must be met for survival

Safety Needs
Needs for security, stability and a safe environment
Belongingness Needs
Needs for social interaction, friendship, affection
and love
Maslow-contd.
Esteem needs
The needs to feel good about oneself and ones
capabilities, to be respected by others, and to achieve recognition and appreciation

Self-Actualisation needs
The needs to achieve ones full potential as a human being
Alderfer
Core needs:
Existence (similar to Maslows physiological and
safety) Relatedness (Maslows social and esteem) Growth (self-actualisation and development)
No rigid hierarchy
Both Maslow and Alderfer are intuitively
appealing but empirical support low
ERG Theory
Existence Needs Relatedness Needs Growth Needs
Satisfaction and Progression

Frustration and Regression
ERG Theory
People are motivated by three hierarchically
ordered types of needs: existence needs (E), relatedness needs (R), and growth needs (G). Usually people must satisfy needs at the lower levels before being strongly motivated by higherlevel needs. However, frustration at higher levels can lead people to be motivated by lower-level needs
Comparison of Two Theories

SelfActualization Esteem Needs Social and Belongingness Needs Relatedness Needs Growth Needs
Safety Needs
Existence Needs Physiological Needs Maslows Need Hierarchy Alderfers ERG Theory
Adapted from Exhibit 6-1: Maslows Need Hierarchy and Alderfers ERG Theory Compared
MacGregor: Th. X and Th. Y

Theory X assumptions:
Employees dislike work, wish to avoid it So they must be coerced to work Employees will avoid responsibilities and seek
direction Place security as main concern and have little ambition
MacGregor-contd.
Theory Y assumptions:
Work is as natural as rest or play People will exercise self-direction if they are
committed to the objectives The average person can learn to accept responsibility The ability to make innovative decisions is dispersed throughout the organisation-it is no monopoly of management
McClellands Needs Theory

Need for achievement Need for power Need for affiliation
People with a high need for achievement -
Prefer to set their own goals. Set goals of moderate difficulty that are achievable. Like to solve problems rather than leave the results to chance. Are more interested in achieving the goal than in the associated rewards. Prefer situations in which they receive regular, concrete feedback on their performance. Are positive thinkers who find workable solutions to lifes hurdles and challenges. Take a strong personal responsibility for their work.
People with a high need for affiliation - Have a
strong desire to be liked and to stay on good terms with most other people. Tend not to make good managers because they often treat different people in different ways (for example, may apply inconsistent rules). Are more concerned with initiating and maintaining personal relationships than with focusing on the task at hand.
People with a high need for institutional
power - Are concerned about the functioning of the organization and have a desire to serve others. Are controlled in their exercise of power. People with a high need for personal power - Desire to influence others for their own personal gain. Are more impulsive in exercising power. Show little concern for other people. Are focused on obtaining symbols of prestige and status (such as big offices).
Best known: n-ach

Have the desire to do things better Seek situations where they can set moderately
challenging goals; receive feedback; assume personal responsibility
McClelland-contd.
Comments
Some evidence that high achievers are successful
in entrepreneurial activities; but may not be good managers Needs for affiliation and power may also be related: best managers are high in n-Pow and low in n-Aff Can N-ach be trained? Or is it entirely due to early childhood experiences?
Conclusion
People with a high need for institutional power are
particularly good at
Increasing morale
Creating clear expectations Getting others to work for the good of the
organization
Effective managers have both a high need for
achievement and a high need for institutional power
Two-Factor Theory
Emphasizes two sets of rewards or outcomes
those related to job satisfaction and those related to job dissatisfaction The two sets are not opposite ends of the same continuum but are independent states Job factors leading to satisfaction are different from those leading to dissatisfaction, and vice versa
Herzberg: Two-factor theory

Also called Motivation-Hygiene Theory
Herzberg asked people to describe in detail
situations when they felt very good and when they felt very bad about their jobs Found different factors for good and bad Not satisfaction vs. dissatisfaction, but satisfaction vs. no satisfaction and no dissatisfaction vs. dissatisfaction
Motivators also called satisfiers, lead to greater
job satisfaction Hygiene factors also call dissatisfiers, when absent or missing lead to job dissatisfaction
Two-Factor Theory
Motivators
When increased, lead to greater satisfaction
Hygiene Factors
When deficient, lead to greater dissatisfaction
Achievement Recognition
Responsibility
Opportunity for advancement or promotion
Pay Technical supervision
Working conditions
Company policies and procedures relationships with others
Challenging work Potential for personal

growth
Interpersonal Status Security
Herzberg-contd.
Sources of satisfaction (descending order)
Achievement Recognition Work itself Responsibility
Advancement
Growth
Herzberg-contd.
Sources of Dissatisfaction (descending)
Company policy and administration Supervision; relationship with supervisors Work conditions Salary
Relationship with peers; subordinates

Status Security
Herzberg-contd.
Criticisms of Herzberg:
Assumes a positive relationship between
satisfaction and productivity Unreliable methodology

All the above theories (Maslow, Alderfer,
Herzberg) are intuitively appealing but not backed up by hard data

All the above theories are part of
management folklore; hence their importance
Process Theories
Expectancy Equity
Goal-Setting
Expectancy Theory
A process theory about work motivation that
focuses on how workers make choices among alternative behaviors and levels of effort.
Expectancy theory Vrooms theory that suggests
motivation is a function of an individuals expectancy that a given amount of effort will lead to a particular level of performance, instrumentality judgments (perceived connections) that indicate performance will lead to certain outcomes, and the valence (value) of outcomes.
Expectancy Theory-contd.
Key terms:
Valence: the desirability of an outcome Instrumentality: a perception about the extent to
which performance of one or more behaviours will lead to the attainment of a particular outcome. Expectancy: a perception about the extent to which effort will result in a certain level of performance.
Expectancy - subjective probability that effort will
lead to performance Instrumentality - subjective probability that a given level of performance will lead to certain outcomes Valence - An Individuals expected satisfaction associated with each outcome resulting from performance
Expectancy Theory
Effort-performance:
Do individuals believe that their inputs will result in a
given level of performance?

Performance-reward:
Do individuals believe that performance at this level will
lead to obtaining outcomes they desire?
Expectancy Theory
MF = E x (I x V)
MF = Motivational Force I = Instrumentality E = Expectancy V = Valence
V1
I1
Outcome
V2 Outcome
MF =
Effort
Performance
I2 I3
V3
Outcome
Adapted from Exhibit 6-2: Expectancy Theory
Expectancy Theory
To increase motivation
Heighten expectancy by increasing associates beliefs
that exerting effort will lead to higher levels of performance Increase instrumentalities by clearly linking high performance to outcomes Increase valence by providing outcomes that are highly valued
Expectancy Theory-contd.
Equity Theory
A process theory about work motivation that
focuses on workers perceptions of the fairness of their work outcomes and inputs. (J. Stacy Adams)
According to this theory what is important is the way
a worker perceives his outcome/input ratio compared to that of another person Outcome/input ratio is the relationship between what a worker gets from a job and what he contributes to the job
Equity Theory-contd.
Two basic types of inequity
Overpayment inequity: when a person perceives
that their outcome/input ratio is greater than the ratio of the referent Underpayment equity: exists when a person perceives that their outcome/input ratio is less than the ratio of the referent
Ways to restore equity:
Workers change their inputs or outcomes Change their referents inputs or outcomes Change their perceptions of inputs and outcomes Workers change their referent
Workers leave the organisation or force the referent
to leave
Implications:
Because inputs are likely to vary across workers
outcomes should also vary. Do not give all workers at a given level or holding the same title the same level of outcomes unless their inputs are identical Distribute outcomes to workers based on their inputs to their jobs and the organisation. Strive to maintain equity for maximum motivation
Implications:
Because inputs are likely to vary across workers
outcomes should also vary. Do not give all workers at a given level or holding the same title the same level of outcomes unless their inputs are identical Distribute outcomes to workers based on their inputs to their jobs. Strive to maintain equity for maximum motivation
Because it is perception of equity that drives
motivation, frequently monitor and assess workers perceptions about relevant outcomes and inputs Realise that failure to recognise above average levels of inputs has major motivational consequences
Equity theory focuses on distributive justice but
attention now on organisational justice, that is overall perception on what is fair in the workplace.
Procedural justice: the perceived fairness of the
procedures used to make decisions about distribution of outcomes The extent to which managers explain their decisions to workers determine perceptions of fairness
Equity Theory
Motivation is based on a persons assessment of the ratio of the outcomes received (pay, status) for inputs on the job (effort, ability) compared to the same ratio for a comparison other
My Outcomes My inputs Others Outcomes
vs.
Others Inputs
Equity Theory
Perceived inequity, employees may:
Increase or decrease inputs
Change their outcomes

Distort perceptions of inputs and/or outcomes Distort perceptions of others inputs and/or outcomes
Change the referent others

Leave the organization
Reactions to Inequity
Sensitives pay a great deal of attention to outcome-input ratios, motivated to resolve any inequity favorable or unfavorable Benevolents tolerant of inequity that is unfavorable but not comfortable with inequity that favors them Entitleds do not tolerate unfavorable inequity but are comfortable with inequity that favors them
Reactions to Equity
Feelings of equity frequently lead to outcome satisfaction and job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and organizational citizenship behaviors. Organizational Citizenship an associates willingness to engage in organizationally important behaviors that go beyond prescribed job duties helping co-workers, expending extra effort, etc.
Distributive Justice
A form of justice that relates to perceptions of fairness in outcomes. Often tied to perceptions of inequity.
Procedural Justice
The degree to which people think the procedures used to determine outcomes are fair. Some rules:
Based on accurate information
Procedures free from bias Procedures applied consistently Voice in the decision process Formal grievance procedures
Ethical code Treated with respect
Procedural Justice
Given reasons for decisions
Goal-Setting Theory
Challenging and specific goals increase human performance because they affect attention, effort, and persistence. To be effective, managers should address:
Goal difficulty Goal specificity Goal commitment Participation in setting goals Feedback
Goal difficulty how difficult should the performance goal

be. Should the goal be easy, moderately difficult, or very difficult to achieve? Goal specificity how specific should the expected outcome be (e.g. number of parts assembled), or can goals be more loosely defined (do your best)? Goal commitment what will make associates commit to goals? Participation in setting goals how important is it for associates to have input in selecting the goals and levels of performance to be achieved? If important, how should they be involved? Feedback to what extent should associates be informed of their progress as they work toward the performance goals?
Factors Affecting Goal Commitment

Factors Increasing the Desirability of Attaining a Given Goal Factors Increasing the Perceived Ability of Attaining a Given Goal
Adapted From Exhibit 6-3: Factors Affecting Goal Commitment
Conclusions
Feedback on performance, even in the absence of established goals, is likely to have a positive effect on motivation. Feedback is especially important when performance goals exist and when they are relatively difficult to achieve.
Goal-setting Theory
A theory that focuses on identifying the types of
goals that are most effective in producing high levels of motivation and performance and why goals have these effects.
Locke argued that intentions to work towards a goal
are a major source of motivation Specific goals produce a higher level of effort Intentions articulated in terms of difficult and specific goals are a motivating force
Implications for Management

Be sure that a workers goals are specific and
difficult, whether set by you, by the worker, or by both of you. Express confidence in your subordinates abilities to attain their goals, and give subordinates regular feedback on the extent of goal attainment.
Implications-contd.
When workers are performing difficult and
complex tasks that involve learning, do not set goals until the workers gain some mastery over the task.
Making Visible Change

Motivate employees by:
Providing a well-defined career path
Providing valued rewards and benefits Setting specific, challenging goals Providing support to help build client base Avoiding layoffs of associates Engaging associates in a variety of organizational decisions
Experiencing Strategic OB
Motivating Associates: Integration of Theory

Motivation Practices
Motivation Theories
Maslow ERG McClelland Herzberg
Find Rewards
Tie to Performance
Redesign Jobs
Provide Feedback
Clarify Goals
X
X X
X
X X
X
X X
Expectancy
Equity Goal Setting
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Adapted from Exhibit 6-4: Motivation Factors Resulting from Motivation Theories
Motivating Associates: Integration of Theory

Find meaningful individual rewards
Tie rewards to performance

Redesign jobs job enlargement and job
enrichment Provide feedback Clarify expectations and goals some use MBO
Job Enrichment
Richard Hackman
Skill Variety
Task Identity
Task Significance
Greg Oldham
Autonomy
Feedback
Connecting People in the Workplace

Deloitte recommends:
Design physical space that fosters connections Build an organizational cushion of time and space Cultivate communities Stimulate rich networks of high-quality relationships Provide collaboration tools
Thoughts?
Provide Feedback
Feedback is most effective when provided in
conjunction with goals Feedback should be repeated and provided at regular intervals Feedback should contain information about how associates can improve their performance Feedback should come from a credible source Feedback should focus on the performance, not the person
5a Stress
The experience of opportunities or threats that
people perceive as important and also perceive they might not be able to handle or deal with effectively. A condition in which an individual is confronted with an opportunity, constraint, or demand related to what he or she desires and for which the outcome is perceived to be both uncertain and important
Workplace Stress Defined

Stress a feeling of tension that occurs when
a person assesses that a given situation is about to exceed his or her ability to cope and consequently will endanger his or her wellbeing. Job stress - the feeling that ones capabilities, resources, or needs do not match the demands of the job. Acute stress a short-term stress reaction to an immediate threat Chronic stress a long-term stress reaction resulting from ongoing situations
Potential Sources of Stress

Personal Stressors
Job-related Stressors
Group- and Organization-related Stressors Stressors Arising out of Work-Life Linkages
Personal Stressors
Getting married
Getting divorced
Death of a close friend/relative Buying a home Moving Serious illness
Job-related Stressors
Role Conflict
Role Ambiguity
Work Overload Work Under-load Promotions Demotions-sidelining Challenging Job Assignments
Group and Organization-related Stressors

Misunderstandings
Conflict
Interpersonal Disagreements Uncomfortable Working Conditions
Work-Life Linkage Stressors

Work Life - Personal Life Role Conflict
Family Responsibilities
Work Requests in Violation of Personal Values
Consequences
Managing Stress
Individual Approaches
Organizational approaches
Problem-focused coping: the steps people take
to deal directly with and act on the source of stress. Emotion-focused coping: the steps people take to deal with and control their stressful feelings and emotions.
Problem-Focused Coping Strategies for Individuals

Time Management
Getting Help From a Mentor

Role Negotiation
(The process through which workers actively try to change their roles in order to reduce role conflict, role ambiguity, overload, or underload.)
Emotion-Focused Coping Strategies for Individuals

Exercise
Meditation
Social Support Clinical Counseling Nonfunctional Strategies
Problem-Focused Coping Strategies for Organizations

Job Redesign and Rotation
Reduction of Uncertainty
Job Security Company Day Care Flexible Work Schedules and Job Sharing
Emotion-Focused Coping Strategies for Organizations

On-Site Exercise Facilities
Organizational Support
Employee Assistance Programs Personal Days and Sabbaticals
Coping Strategies
6 Group
Group: two or more individuals who have come
together to achieve particular objectives Formal group: a designated work group defined by an organisations structure
Informal group: a group that is neither formally
structured nor nor organisationally determined; such a group appears in response to the to the need for social contact Command group: a group composed of individuals who report directly to a given manager
Groups
Task group: people working together to complete
a job task Interest group: People working together to attain a specific objective with which each is concerned Friendship group: Peole brought together because they share one or more common characteristics
Group - Two or more interdependent
individuals who influence one another through social interaction. Team - Two or more people, with work roles that require them to be interdependent, who operate within a larger social system (the organization), performing tasks relevant to the organizations mission, with consequences that affect others inside and outside the organization, and who have membership that is identifiable to those on the team and those not on the team.
Formal groups - Groups to which members
are formally assigned Informal groups - Groups formed spontaneously by people who share interests, values, or identities Identity groups - Groups based on the social identities of members Virtual teams - Teams in which members work together but are separated by time, distance, or organizational structure
Develop a virtual team charter that describes
everyones roles, the decision-making process, and the goals of the team project. This makes it clear who is supposed to be doing what and to what end. Provide reports on project progress when people are working apart, they may lose track of how the entire project is progressing and what contributions others are making. Set up communication rules such as blackout times when, due to time-zone differences, everyone is not available. These rules should also include acceptable time periods for responding to other inquiries and requests.
Humanize everyone on the team share
pictures and personal information do this early on. Create a social networking site so people can chat off the job. Handle serious conflicts face-to-face Have as much face-to-face communication as possible Reward positive team behavior and celebrate team success when most interaction takes place electronically, it is easy to forget about congratulating others for a job well done. Take time to celebrate the teams successes.
Production teams groups of associates who
produce tangible products Service teams groups of associates who engage in repeated transactions with customers Management teams groups of senior-level managers who coordinate the activities of their respective units Project teams groups of associates (often from different functional areas or organizational units) who temporarily serve as teams to complete a specific project Advisory teams groups of associates formed to advise the organization on certain issues
Knowledge Criteria reflect the degree to which the
team continually increases its performance capabilities. Teams are more effective when they share knowledge and understanding. Affective Criteria address the question of whether team members have a fulfilling and satisfying team experience. One important faction is the affective tone or general emotional state of the team. Outcome Criteria refer to the quantity and quality of the teams output or to the extent to which the teams output is acceptable to clients. Should reflect synergy. Is the Team Needed? does the project really need a team or would one person be preferred?
Type of task Diversity works best when tasks
require innovation and creativity. Outcome Diversity may have a positive effect on performance but a negative effect on members reactions to the team and subsequent behaviors, such as turnover. Time Diversity can have negative effects in the short run but positive effects in the long run. Type of diversity If team members are diverse on factors that lead them to have different performance goals or levels of commitment to the team, or to form subgroups, the relationship between diversity and performance will be negative.
The relationship between members personalities
and team performance can be quite strong, but the exact relationship depends on the type of task that the team is trying to accomplish. Researchers have several ways of determining the personality of the team; however, all methods are based on aggregating individuals scores.
The personality traits that have important effects
on team performance include agreeableness (the ability to get along with others and cooperate) and emotional stability (the tendency to experience positive rather than negative emotions).
Also, the greater the degree of
conscientiousness among team members, the higher the teams performance tends to be. This is particularly true when the teams task involves planning and performance rather than creativity. It appears that agreeable team members contribute to team performance by fulfilling team maintenance roles, whereas conscientious team members perform critical task roles.
Team-level extraversion and openness to
experience are positively related only to performance on decision-making and creative tasks.
There is no one ideal number of team members for all
situations. Many studies have examined the relationship of team size and team performance, and two lines of thought have emerged. The first suggests that the relationship between team size and team performance is shaped like an inverted U. Thus, as teams become larger, the diversity of skills, talents, ideas, and individual associate inputs into the task is greater, leading to improved performance. However, as the number of team members increases, the need for cooperation and coordination also increases. At some point, the effort that goes into managing the team will outweigh the benefits of having more members, and team performance will begin to decline.
Other researchers, however, have found that
performance increases linearly with team size without ever showing a downturn. This linear relationship most likely results when a team avoids the problems associated with too many members, such as social loafing, poor coordination, and worsening communication. Thus, the relationship between team size and team performance depends on other factors, such as the task or the environment.
Divisible tasks tasks that can be separated into
subcomponents Unitary tasks tasks that cannot be divided and must be performed by an individual Maximization tasks tasks with a quantity goal Optimization tasks tasks with a quality goal Additive tasks those in which individual inputs are simply added together Compensatory tasks those in which members individual performances are averaged together to arrive at the teams overall performance Disjunctive tasks those in which teams must work together to develop a single, agreed upon product or solution Conjunctive tasks those in which all members must perform their individual tasks to arrive at the teams overall performance
Cohesion refers to members attraction to the team. Interpersonal cohesion team members liking or attraction to other team members. Task cohesion team members attraction and commitment to the tasks and goals of the team. Conflict behaviors or beliefs of a team member that are unacceptable to other team members. More detail in Chapter 12. Personal conflicts team members simply do not like each other. Substantive conflicts occurs when a team member disagrees with anothers task-related ideas or analysis of the teams problems or plans. Procedural conflicts occur when team members disagree about policies and procedures. Social facilitation the presence of others improves an individuals performance. Social loafing a phenomenon wherein people put forth less effort when they work in teams than when they work alone. Communication sharing information in order to coordinate productive efforts. Can be both formal and informal.
Forming (Orientation) - Members become
familiar with each other Storming (Conflict) - Disagreement and tension among members Norming (Structure) - Cohesiveness and roles develop Performing (Work) - High task and goal orientation Adjourning (Dissolution) - Task completion and termination of roles
Group: Stages of development

Five stage group development: The five distinct
stages groups go through: forming, storming, norming, performing and adjourning Forming: the first stage in group development, characterised by much uncertainty
Storming stage: the second stage characterized
by intra-group conflict Norming stage:Third stage characterised by close relationships and cohesiveness Performing stage: Now the group is fully functional Adjourning stage: characterised by concern with wrapping up activities rather than task performance
Punctuated Equilibrium Model (PEM) a
model of group development that suggests that groups do not go through linear stages but that group formation depends on the task at hand and the deadlines for that task.
Top Management Support Explicit vision and strategic plan - Serves as the
basis for determining desirable team outcomes. Results-oriented measurement of outcomes Expects all leaders in organization to do same. Actively include associates at all levels in decision-making process - All decisions that affect associates also affect team performance. Make explicit decision about using teams - Tie the decision to business objectives. Actively manage and review support systems for teams - Problems in teams such as needed resources will be revealed in review.
Support Systems Technology - Teams must have access to technology for performing
their tasks, including tools and computer software. Information systems - Teams often need more (or less) information than they possess. It is crucial to provide a user friendly information system. Selection of team members - Tailor the staffing process to the type of team. Conduct teamwork analysis to identify the knowledge, skills, and abilities needed for both task work and team work. Consider political issues and who is to do the assessment of potential team members. Training - Team-building training generally focuses on four different types of skills: (1) goal-setting skills; (2) interpersonal skills; (3) problemsolving skills; and (4) role-clarification skills. Rewards - If people are to work together effectively as a team, they must be rewarded as a team, in addition to individual rewards. Team reward systems may include profit-sharing plans. Leadership - Successful team leaders perform three roles: (1) team liaison; (2) direction setting; and (3) team operational coordinator.
Group properties 1
Roles: a set of expected behaviour patterns
attributed to someone occupying a given position in a social unit

Role identity: ceratain attitudes and behaviours
consistent with a role Role perception: an individuals view of how he or she is supposed to act in a given situation
Role expectations: how others believe a person
should act in a given situation; psychological contract role conflict: A situation in which an individual is confronted by divergent role expectations
Zimbardos experiment
Group properties-2 Norms

Hawthorne studies
Norms: acceptable standards of behaviour within
a group that are shared by the groups members Conformity

Asch studies
Group properties-3 Status

Status: Socially defined position or rank given to
members by others Determinants: The power a person wields over others a persons ability to contribute to a groups goals An individuals personal characteristics
Group property 4 Size

Social loafing: free rider
Group property 5 Cohesiveness

A cohesive group is not a productive group
Group decision making

Strengths: Groups generate more complete
information and knowledge Weaknesses: conformity, domination by few, ambiguous responsibility Group think: norm for consensus overrides the realistic appraisal of alternative courses of action Group shift change in decision risk of individual as a member of a group
Teams
Work group: a group that interacts with primarily
to share information and to make decisions to help each group member to perform Work team: a group whose individual efforts result in a performance that is greater than the um of the individual inputs
Types of teams
Problem solving teams
Self-managed work-teams
Cross functional teams Virtual teams
Types of teams
Problem solving teams Groups of 5 to 12
employees from the same department who meet for a few hours each week to discuss ways of improving quality, efficiency, and the work environment Self-managed work teams: Groups of 10 to 15 people who take on responsibilities of their former supervisors
Types of teams
Cross functional teams: employees from about
the same hierarchical level, but from different work areas, who come together to accomplish a task Virtual teams: teams that use computer technology to tie together physically dispersed members in order to achieve a common goal.
Creating effective teams

Context:
Adequate resources Leadership and structure Climate of trust Performance evaluation and reward systems

Composition
Abilities of members Personality Allocating roles Diversity
Size of teams
Member flexibility Member preferences

Work design
Autonomy Skill variety Task identity Task significance

Process
Common purpose Specific goals Team efficacy Conflict levels
Social loafing
Individuals to team players

Selection
Training
Rewards
Team building and team based work

TBW emphasizes on
the need for building effectively successful organizations based on teams
Chapter 11
Groups and Teams

Michael A. Hitt C. Chet Miller Adrienne Colella
Slides by Ralph R. Braithwaite
11-1
Implications
Determine what outcomes your followers are
trying to obtain from their jobs, and make sure that you have as much control as possible over those outcomes. Distribute desired outcomes to your subordinates when they attain their work goals and perform at a high level.
Implications-contd.
Raise your followers expectations by clarifying
how they can attain their work goals, removing obstacles that hamper goal attainment and high performance, and expressing confidence in their ability to succeed. Tailor your leadership behaviors to the characteristics of your subordinates and to the situation.
Implications-contd.
When determining how much to allow your
subordinates to participate in decision making, consider the decision to be made, the subordinates involved, and the information you need to make a good decision.
Implications-contd.
Realize that participation in decision making can
contribute to your subordinates growth and development on the job but can also be timeconsuming. Develop high-quality relationships with as many of your subordinates as possible - that is, have a big in-group and a small out-group.
7 Leadership: Basics
Leadership: The exercise of influence by one
member of a group or organization over other members to help the group or organization achieve its goals. Leader: An individual who is able to influence group or organizational members to help the group or organization achieve its goals.
The Nature of Leadership

The process of providing general direction and influencing individuals or groups to achieve goals.
Leadership-contd.
Leadership is the ability to influence a group
toward the attainment of goals

Group: Two or more individuals who are
interacting and interdependent and who have come together to achieve particular objectives
Leadership: Basics-contd.
Trait Approach
Behavioural Approach
Fiedlers Contingency Model Situational Theory Leader-Member Exchange Theory Path-Goal Theory Vroom and Yetton Model
Trait Theory of Leadership

Concept that certain traits help make people effective leaders. Early research suggested that the traits fell into three categories: Physical Characteristics Personality Characteristics
Some Criticism
Abilities
Physical characteristics such as height and
appearance Personality characteristics such as self-esteem and dominance Abilities such as intelligence and verbal fluency Criticized because the methodology used to identify traits was poor, list of traits associated with leadership grew so large it became meaningless, the results of the research were inconsistent, and no leadership trait was found to relate consistently to unit or organizational performance and different situations seemed to require different traits.
Trait theories
Intelligence Task-Relevant Knowledge Dominance Self-Confidence Energy/Activity Levels
Tolerance for Stress

Integrity and Honesty Emotional Maturity/Emotional intelligence
Traits Associated with Leadership

Energy Appearance Intelligence Judgment Verbal fluency Achievement drive Adaptability Aggressiveness Enthusiasm Extroversion Initiative Insightfulness Integrity Persistence Self-confidence Sense of humor Tolerance for stress Interpersonal skills Prestige Tact
Adapted from Exhibit 8-1: Common Traits Associated with Leadership
Six Core Traits of Leadership

Drive
Leadership Motivation
Integrity
SelfConfidence
Cognitive Ability
Knowledge of the Domain
Drive Ambition, persistence, tenacity, initiative Leadership motivation - Desire to lead, influence others,
assume responsibility, and gain power; two types - socialized power motive, personalized power motive Integrity Truthfulness, honesty, maintain consistency between what they say and what they do Self-confidence - Confident in their actions and show that confidence to others, learn from their mistakes, react positively to stress, even-tempered, display appropriate emotions Cognitive ability - High degree of intelligence, process complex information, deal with changing environments Knowledge of the domain - Knowledge of business in which they are engaged, make better decisions, anticipate future problems, understand implications of their actions
Trait theories-contd.
Personality traits

Adaptability Adjustment (normal) Assertiveness; Dominance Emotional balance and control Originality and creativity Self-confidence Independence (non-conformer) Personal integrity
Abilities
Intelligence Judgement and decisiveness Knowledge Fluency
Social skills
Ability to enlist co-operation Administrative ability Cooperativeness Popularity and prestige
Sociability
Tact and diplomacy
Trait theories: criticisms

For at least some traits, it is not clear which
comes first, being in a leadership position or possessing the trait in question.

The trait approach provides little guidance
concerning what advice or training to give current or soon-to-be leaders.
Behavioural Theories
These focus on what a leader actually does Early behavioural theory (Iowa; Lewin, et al)
Authoritarian: L. makes decision alone and tells
subordinates what they are to do Democratic: L. actively involves subordinates in the decision making process, sharing problems with them, soliciting their inputs and sharing the authority for taking decisions
Lewin, Lippitt and White

Laissez-faire: the leader avoids making a decision
whenever possible and leaves it to subordinates to make individual decisions on their own. Leader is withdrawn.
Behavioral Theories of Leadership

University of Michigan Studies Ohio State University Studies
Behavioural Theories: U Mich

Basically one dimension (polar opposites)
Employee oriented: the leader is concerned about
the welfare and development of subordinates, etc. Production oriented leaders emphasize planning, goal setting and meeting schedules. They follow a close style of supervision.
U. of Michigan-contd.
Employee centered:
Concern with subordinate welfare and development Two-way communication with subordinates Supportive and non-punitive Responsibility and authority delegated to
subordinates
U. of Michigan-contd.
Production centered
Concern with planning, goal-setting and meeting
schedules. Gives explicit instructions and makes use of power Evaluative of subordinates Stresses production
Job-centered leadership style a behavioral
leadership style that emphasizes employee tasks and the methods used to accomplish them Employee-centered leadership style - a behavioral leadership style that emphasizes employees personal needs and development of interpersonal relationships
University of Michigan Studies

Job-Centered Leadership Style
Employee tasks
Methods for accomplishment
Employee-Centered Leadership Style

Employees personal needs Development of interpersonal relationships
Behavioural Theories: OSU

Two Dimensions (seen as independent)
Consideration: Behaviour indicating that a leader
trusts, respects, and values good relationships with his or her followers. Initiating Structure: Behaviour that a leader engages in to make sure that work gets done and subordinates perform their jobs acceptably (task oriented)
OSU-contd.
Considerate:
Friendliness Consults with subordinates Recognises subordinates Open communication
Supportiveness
Represents subordinate interests to higher
authorities
OSU-contd.
Initiating structure:
Planning Coordinating Directing Problem-solving
Clarifying subordinate roles

Criticizing poor work Pressurizing subordinates
Ohio State University Studies

Consideration
Leaders express friendship Develop mutual trust and respect Strong interpersonal relationships with staff
Initiating Structure
Well defined patterns of organization and
communication Define procedures Delineate relationships with staff Emphasize goals and deadlines Assign tasks and identify performance expectations
Consideration - a behavioral leadership style
demonstrated by leaders who express friendship, develop mutual trust and respect, and have strong interpersonal relationships with those being led Initiating structure - a behavioral leadership style demonstrated by leaders who establish well-defined patterns of organization and communication, define procedures, and delineate their relationships with those being led

High
Consideration
A
(Employee-Centered Style)
C
(Job-Centered Style) High Initiating Structure
Low
Adapted from Exhibit 8-2: Comparison of Consideration and Initiating Structure with EmployeeCentered and Job-Centered Concepts
Behavioural theories-concl.
These researches shifted focus from the kind of
person the leader is (trait theories) to what the leader does. They discovered some underlying themes or dimensions and the similarity of themes in these three research traditions is remarkable.

The Managerial Grid
Concern for people One of the two dimensions of leadership behavior of the managerial grid; similar to the behavioral styles of consideration and employee-centered leadership Concern for production One of the two dimensions of leadership behavior of the managerial grid; similar to the behavioral styles of initiating structure and job-centered leadership
The Managerial Grid

The best leadership style High Concern 9 8
9,9 style
Concern for People
6
5 4 3 2 Low Concern 1
Grid Training helps leaders 8, 7 move to a style high in both style Concern for people 2, 6 style Concern for production
4,3 style
1 2 3 Low Concern
8 9 High Concern
Concern for Production

Adapted from Exhibit 8-3: Blake and Moutons Managerial Grid
Contingency theories
These theories claim that the most effective
leader behaviour is contingent on the characteristics of the situation So we would want to fit the leader to the situation
Fiedlers Theory of Leadership

Effectiveness depends on leaders
behavioral style and the situation Leader style measured by the LPC (least preferred co-worker) scale Situational favorableness assessed by three things:
Leader-member relations Task structure Position power
Fiedlers Contingency Theory

The theory that leader effectiveness is
determined by both the personal characteristics of leaders and by the situation in which leaders find themselves. Devised a questionnaire called the Least Preferred Co-worker or LPC to determine whether a person is relationship-oriented or task-oriented.
Fiedler-contd.
A person is asked to think about and grade a
least preferred co-worker-someone with whom he has worked with or works with now It is found that some people grade the least preferred co-worker positively, (high LPC scorers) whereas others have a more negative impression.
Fiedler-contd.
According to Fiedler high LPC scorers are those
who are motivated towards close interpersonal relations (democratic, employee centered, considerate) Low LPC scorers are the opposite (authoritarian etc.)
Fiedlers LPC Scale

Esteem for Least Preferred Co-Worker
Cooperative
___:___:___:___:___:___:___:___
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Uncooperative
Friendly
___:___:___:___:___:___:___:___
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Unfriendly
Low LPC Score

Negative adjectives Task-oriented leader (task achievement needs first)
High LPC Score

More positive adjectives Relationship-oriented leader (interpersonal
relationship needs first)
Situational Characteristics
Leader-Member Relations
The degree to which a leader is respected, accepted, and
had friendly interpersonal relationships with followers

Task Structure
The degree to which tasks are broken down into easily
understood steps or parts

Position Power
The degree to which a leader can reward, punish,
promote, or demote individuals in the unit or organization
Fiedler's Situational Characteristics

Leader-Member Relations - The relationship
between a leader and his or her followers. Task Structure - The extent to which the work to be performed by a group is clearly defined. Position Power - The amount of formal authority a leader has.
Fiedler-contd.
These situational characteristics are arranged in a
hierarchy of importance Leader-Member Relations most imp. Next comes Task Structure Finally Position Power Situations range from very favourable for leader to very unfavourable
Fiedlers Contingency Theory of Leadership Effectiveness
Adapted from Exhibit 8-3: Fiedlers Contingency Model of Leadership Effectiveness
Fiedler-contd.
An evaluation of the three situational
characteristics will suggest that either a relationship-oriented leadership style or a task-oriented leadership style is best depending upon circumstances.
Fiedler-contd.
Task oriented style:
Best in the two extreme situations (I,II VIII)
Relationship-Oriented Leadership Style:

Best in the middle situations (III to VII)
Assign task-oriented leaders to very unfavourable
or to very favourable situations. Assign relationship-oriented leaders to moderately favourable situations.
Fiedler-contd.
If you or one of your subordinates is a
relationship-oriented leader in a very unfavourable situation, try to increase the favourability of the situation by improving leadermember relations, increasing task structure by clarifying goals or ways to achieve goals, or raising levels of position power.
Path-Goal Leadership Theory

Leadership Style Contingency Factors
Outcomes
Path-goal leadership theory a theory of
leadership based on expectancy concepts from the study of motivation, which suggests that leader effectiveness depends on the degree to which a leader enhances the performance expectancies and valences of his or her employees.
Leader Effectiveness
Leadership can effect employees expectancies and valences in several ways:
Assign tasks that have high value (valence) Support employees efforts (effort performance
expectancy) Tie rewards to goal accomplishment (performancereward instrumentality)
Path-Goal Leadership Theory

Leader Behaviors Situational Factors
Directive Leadership Supportive Leadership Achievement-Oriented

Leadership
Subordinate
Characteristics Work Environment Characteristics Effectiveness of leader behavior depends on these situational factors
Participative Leadership
Leader Behaviors: Directive Leadership Leadership behavior characterized by
implementing guidelines, providing information on what is expected, setting definite performance standards, ensuring individuals follow rules Supportive Leadership - Leadership behavior characterized by friendliness and concern for individuals well-being, welfare, and needs Achievement-Oriented Leadership - Leadership behavior characterized by setting challenging goals and seeking to improve performance Participative Leadership - Leadership behavior characterized by sharing information, consulting with those who are led, and emphasizing group decision-making Situational Factors: Subordinate Characteristics Needs, Locus of control, Experience, Ability Work Environment Characteristics - Task structure, Interpersonal relations in the group, Role conflict, Role clarity
Interaction of Leader Behavior and Situational Factors

Locus of Control Need for Affiliation Need for Security
Participative, Directive or Supportive Leaders
Need for Growth
Employee with Internal Locus of Control Participative Leader Employee with External Locus of Control Directive Leader Employee with High Need for Affiliation Supportive Leader Employee with High Need for Security Directive Leader Structured Task Work Environment Supportive Leader Unstructured Task Work Environment Directive Leader Employee with High Growth Need Strength Complex Task Work Environment Participative and Achievement Oriented Leader Employee with Low Growth Need Strength Complex Task Work Environment Directive Leader Employee with High Growth Need Strength Simple Task Work Environment Supportive Leader Employee with Low Growth Need Strength Simple Task Work Environment Supportive Leader

Interaction of Leader Behavior and Situational Factors

Situational Factors
Subordinate Characteristics
Internal locus of control External locus of control High need for affiliation High need for security
Characteristics of the Work Environment
Effective Leader Behaviors

Participative Directive Supportive Directive Supportive Directive Participative/ Achievement oriented Directive Supportive Supportive
Strengths
High growth need Low growth need High growth need Low growth need
Structured task Unstructured task Complex task Complex task Simple task Simple task
Adapted from Exhibit 8-4: Interaction of Leader Behavior and Situational Factors
Path-Goal Theory
A theory which describes how leaders can
motivate their followers to achieve group and organizational goals and clarifies the kinds of behaviours leaders can engage in to motivate followers.
Path-Goal Theory-contd.
It argues that the leader can influence the
satisfaction, motivation and performance of subordinates by:

Providing the subordinates with rewards Making attainment of these rewards contingent
upon the accomplishment of performance goals Helping subordinates to obtain rewards by clarifying the path to these goals
Effective leaders motivate their followers to
achieve group and organizational goals.

Effective leaders make sure that they have
control over outcomes their subordinates desire.
Effective leaders reward subordinates for
performing at a high level or achieving their work goals by giving them desired outcomes.
Effective leaders raise their subordinates beliefs
about their ability to achieve their work goals and perform at a high level.
In determining how to treat their subordinates and
what behaviours to engage in, effective leaders take into account their subordinates characteristics and the type of work they do. Effective style is one which complements the subordinates situation by providing direction and assistance
To achieve above the leader has to indulge in
different types of behaviour:

Directive Behaviour Supportive Behaviour Participative Behaviour
Achievement-Oriented Behaviour (this emphasises
excellence in the performance of subordinates)
Leadership: Contemporary Issues

Transactional Leadership
Charismatic Leadership
Transformational Leadership Authentic Leadership Gender and Leadership
Leadership that motivates followers by
exchanging rewards for high performance and noticing and reprimanding subordinates for mistakes and substandard performance.
A leadership approach that is based on the exchange relationship between followers and leaders. It is characterized by contingent behavior and active management-by-exception behavior. It is the degree to which leaders provide what followers want in response to good performance.
Four Characteristics of Transactional Leaders

Understand what followers want to receive
from their work, and attempt to give them what they desire, contingent on performance
Clarify links between performance and reward Exchange rewards and promises of rewards
for specified performance levels
Respond to the interests of followers only if

the followers are performing satisfactorily
Contingent Reward Behavior
Clarify performance expectations
Reward followers when expectations are met
Active Management-by-Exception Behavior

Clarifies minimal performance standards Punishes when standards are not met
Consistently Monitors Performance
Transformational Leadership
Leadership that inspires followers to trust the
leader, perform behaviours that contribute to the achievement of organizational goals, and perform at a high level.
A leadership approach that involves motivating followers to do more than expected, to continuously develop and grow, to increase self-confidence, and to place the interests of the unit or organization before their own. Involves charisma, intellectual stimulation, and individual consideration.
Transformational Leaders Do Three Things

Increase followers awareness of the importance of pursuing a vision or mission and the strategy required Encourage followers to place the interests of the unit, organization, or larger collective before their own personal interests Raise followers aspirations so they continuously try to develop and improve themselves while striving for higher levels of accomplishment
Characteristics
Intellectual Stimulation
Charisma
Individual Consideration
Charismatic Leader
A self-confident, enthusiastic leader able to win
followers respect and support for his or her vision of how good things could be.
Charismatic Leader-contd.
1.
2.
The behavioural components of Charismatic Leadership are interrelated and as such they form a constellation of components Leaders are charismatic when their vision is highly discrepant from the status quo yet remains within the latitude of acceptance for their followers
3.
4.
Charismatic leaders may take high personal risks, incur high costs and engage in selfsacrifice to achieve a shared vision Charismatic leaders demonstrate expertise in transcending the existing order through use of unconventional or extraordinary means
5.
Charismatic leaders engage in behaviours that are novel, unconventional and counternormative, and as such involve high personal risk or high probability of hurting their own self interest.
6.
7.
Charismatic leaders engage in realistic assessments of the environmental resources and constraints affecting the realization of their visions. Charismatic leaders portray the status quo as negative or intolerable and the future vision as the most attractive and attainable alternative.
8.
Charismatic leaders articulate their motivation to lead through assertive behaviour and expression of self confidence, expertise, unconventionality and concern for followers needs.
9.
Charismatic leaders influence on their followers stems from the use of personal idiosyncratic power (expert power and referent power) rather than the use of position power (legal, coercive and reward power)
10. Charismatic leaders exert idiosyncratic
personal power over their followers through entrepreneurial and exemplary behaviour rather than through consensus seeking or directive behaviour.
11. Charismatic leaders act as reformers or agents
of radical changes and their charisma fades when they act as administrators (caretaker role) or managers (nudging role)
12. Contextual factors that cause potential
followers to be disenchanted with the prevailing social order or cause followers to experience psychological distress, although not necessary for the emergence of charismatic leaders facilitate such emergence.
13. Under conditions of relative social tranquility
and lack of psychological distress among followers the actions by a leader that foster or support an attribution of charisma facilitate the emergence of that leader as a charismatic leader. From Conger and Kanungo
Charismatic Leaders Inspire emotion and passion in followers

Get followers to identify with the leader Display confidence Communicate and live up to organizational values Optimistic and enthusiastic
Charisma
Increase the followers focus on problems and

develop new ways to solve them Reexamine assumptions Seek out different views Work to be innovative
Support and develop followers to improve selfconfidence and a desire to improve performance Provide individualized attention to followers Focus on followers strengths Act as teachers and coaches
Common Behaviors

Articulate clear, appealing vision Communicate the vision Delegate significant authority and responsibility Eliminate unnecessary bureaucratic restraints Provide coaching, training and developmental experiences Encourage open sharing of ideas and concerns Encourage participative decision making Promote cooperation and teamwork
Modify structure to promote key values and objectives
The Effects
Charisma Intellectual Stimulation Individual Consideration
Outcomes
Individual Outcomes Unit/Organization Outcomes
Contingent Reward Behavior Active Management by Exception
Dynamism of the task/organizational environment
Adapted from Exhibit 8-5: The Effects of Transformational and Transactional Leadership
Authentic Leadership
They know who they are, know what they believe
in and value, and act on those values candidly and openly. They are ethical and inspire trust
Authentic Leaders

Guided by values that focus on doing
Thoughts?
whats right for their constituencies Try to act in accordance with their values Remain transparent Walk the talk Place equal weight on getting the task accomplished and developing associates Continuously develop themselves Have developed values and personal strengths they need to deal with ambiguous ethical issues
Trust
A positive expectation that the other will not
behave opportunistically
Positive expectation assumes knowledge and
familiarity Opportunistically refers to the inherent risk and vulnerability in any trusting relationship
What is trust?
Integrity:
honesty and truthfulness
Competence:
Technical and interpersonal knowledge and skills
Consistency:
Reliability, predictability and good judgment in
handling situations
What is trust?-contd.
Loyalty
Willingness to protect another person
Openness
Will the person give you the full truth
Types of Trust
Deterrence-based
Based on fear of reprisal if trust is violated
Knowledge-based
When one has adequate information about the
other to be able to predict his behaviour

Identification-based
Emotional connection: parties understand the
others intentions and appreciate their wants
Contemporary leadership roles

Team leadership
Mentoring: a senior employee who sponsors
supports and trains a junior Self leadership: a senior employee who sponsors and supports a less experienced employee
Challenges to the concept

Leadership as attribution
The idea that leadership is an attribution that
people make about other individuals Substitutes and neutralizers

Substitutes: make leaders unnecessary Neutralizers: makes it impossible for leader
behaviour to make any difference
8 What is Communication?
The sharing of information between two or more people to achieve a common understanding about an object or situation. Success occurs when the person receiving the message understands it in the way the sender intended.
This is a problem with communication from time to time.
Communication Process
Encoded Message Received Message
Sent Message Sender
Receiver
Communication Medium
Received Feedback
Feedback
Decoded Message
Adapted from Exhibit 9-1: Sent Message
Sender the person who wishes to communicate a message Receiver the person with whom the sender wishes to
communicate Encoding the process whereby a sender translates the information he or she wishes to send into a message Communication medium or channel the manner in which a message is conveyed Decoding the process whereby a receiver perceives a sent message and interprets its meaning Feedback the process whereby a receiver encodes the message received and sends it back to the original sender
Organizational Communication
Patterns of communication at the organizational level
formal and informal Purpose to facilitate achievement of organizational goals Involves the use of communication networks, policies, and structures
Communication
Two-way Communication communication that includes feedback and an exchange of information between two or more parties One-way Communication communication that does not include feedback
Communication within Organizations

Organizational communication
Patterns of communication at the organizational
level Purpose is to facilitate achievement of organizational goals Involves the use of

Communication networks Policies Structures
Communication Networks
Y Network Centralized Networks All Connected Network
Wheel Network
Circle Network Decentralized Networks
Adapted from Exhibit 9-2: Communication Networks
Centralized networks all communications pass
through a central point or points so that each member of the network communicates with only a small number of others the Y and the Wheel Decentralized networks many people or units can communicate with many others the Circle and the All-Connected
Direction of Organizational Communication

Downward Horizontal Upward
Manager
360 Feedback
Peers Customers
Direct Reports

Downward
From supervisor to subordinate Job instructions Information on organization policies Performance feedback Inform associates about the organizations goals and changes

Upward
From subordinate to supervisor Grievance procedures Departmental meetings Participation in decisions And others Upward communication may be necessary to Monitor the effectiveness of decisions Provide information Maintain associate morale Ensure that jobs are being done properly

Horizontal (lateral)
Between associates at the same level Facilitates coordination among organizational units May arise from integrating positions (boundary-
spanning positions) 360-degree performance feedback
360 Degree Feedback feedback and
appraisals from a variety of levels peers, subordinates, and supervisors. Sometimes the feedback will also come from customers, clients, suppliers, and others who have contact with the individual. One problem that some subordinates have experienced is retaliation by their supervisors; another problem is that peers may be politically motivated to either overrate or underrate their co-workers.
Interpersonal Communication
Direct verbal or nonverbal interaction between
two or more active participants

Formal vs. informal issues Informal includes spontaneous interactions Informal may reach more associates Informal can help build cohesion and friendship among associates Informal may include untrue rumors and gossip
Communication Media
Richness describes the amount of information a medium can convey. Richness depends on:
The availability of feedback The use of multiple cues The use of effective language
The extent to which the communication has a
personal focus
Communication Media
Richest
Equivocal Messages Face-to-face Telephone Electronic messaging Personal written text Formal written text Formal numerical text
Least Rich
Equivocal messages are those that can be
interpreted in multiple ways
Nonverbal Communication
Communication that takes place without using language, such as facial expressions or body language
Body Language
Paralanguage
Gestures
Lying? Attitude
9-417
Body language (kinesics) - Facial expressions,

Use of hands, arms, legs and posture
Paralanguage (How something is said) - Tone

and pitch of voice, Use of silence
Gestures - Hand signals, Shrugging ones

shoulders
9-418
Barriers to Effective Communication

Individual
Organizational
9-419
Organizational barriers information overload,

noise, time pressures, breakdown in the communication network, information distortion, and cross-cultural barriers
Individual barriers differing perceptual bases,

semantic differences, consideration of selfinterest, personal space, and poor listening skills
9-420
Organizational Barriers
Information Overload Time Pressures Specialty Area Jargon Noise Network Breakdowns Information Distortion
Cross-Cultural Barriers
9-421
Information Overload
receiving more information than can be reasonably processed. Occurs for
several reasons First, organizations face higher levels of uncertainty because of escalating change and turbulence in the external environment, so they obtain more information to reduce the uncertainty. Second, the increasing complexity of tasks and organization structures creates a need for more information. Again, organizations employ more specialists to provide the needed information, placing greater information-processing burdens on organizational members. Third, ongoing developments in technology small mobile computers, the Internet, intranets, the growing number of large organizational databases increase the amount of information available to associates and managers. One way in which organizations are trying to deal with the overload caused by electronic messaging and e-mail is by adopting newer, web-based interactive technologies for internal communications. These include blogs, wiki sites, and social networking sites. With this technology, messages are all posted in one place, avoiding redundancy. Also, new anti-spam software has helped businesses cut down on the cost of unwanted e-mail.
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Noise
Anything that disrupts communication or distorts the
message. Noise can be either an organizational-level barrier or an individual-level barrier. It may occur at any step in the communication process or within any element, and it may occur in many forms. Often, it is unintentional, as when two parties have different perceptions of a message. But at times noise may be intentional. Other examples of noise include language barriers (especially in international firms), interruptions, emotions, and attitudes.
9-423
Time Pressures
In most organizations work needs to be done
under deadlines, which create time pressures and constrain an individuals ability to communicate. When people are under time pressure, they sometimes do not carefully develop a message before sending it. In addition, the pressure of a deadline often does not allow for time to receive feedback, so the sender may not know whether the receiver accurately perceived the message.
9-424
Network Breakdowns
Breakdowns in the communication network frequently
occur in large organizations because so much information flows through those networks. Many things can interfere with the flow mail can be misplaced, messages may not be received by those targeted, and people can forget to relay pieces of information. Larger organizations have more problems because messages must flow through more people, increasing the probability that the message will be transmitted inaccurately at some point. One other factor that can cause communication network breakdowns is the architecture of the work environment.
9-425
Specialty Area Jargon

One problem in large, complex organizations
concerns the proliferation of specialists. Specialists are highly knowledgeable within their own fields but frequently have limited understanding of other fields. In addition, they often have their own language, or jargon. It may be difficult for two specialists in different fields to communicate effectively with one another because they use different terminology.
9-426
Information Distortion
It is common for information to be distorted, either
intentionally or unintentionally. Unintentional distortion can occur because of various problems, such as time pressures, or because of perceptual differences. However, intentional distortion often occurs because of competition between work units in an organization. Departments frequently have to compete for scarce resources in their operating budgets. Suppression or distortion of information can (and does) also occur when an associate has more information than his or her supervisor.
9-427
Cross-Cultural Barriers
Cross-cultural barriers occur for two general reasons:
lack of language fluency and lack of cultural fluency. Even though English is becoming an international language for business, the potential for language barriers continues to exist in cross-cultural communications. Language fluency is one dimension of what is known as cultural fluency the ability to identify, understand, and apply cultural differences that influence communication. Language fluency is necessary for cultural fluency but is not itself enough. Cultural fluency can affect many dimensions of organizational behavior, including negotiating styles, nonverbal behavior, personal space, and the use of symbols.
9-428
Individual Barriers
Differing Perceptions Semantic Differences
Status Differences
Consideration of Self-interest
Personal Space
Poor Listening Skills

9-429
Differing Perceptions
One of the most common communication
failures occurs when the sender has one perception of a message and the receiver has another. Differing perceptions are caused by differing frames of reference. Our expectations or frames of reference can influence how we recall and interpret information.
9-430
Semantic Differences
Semantics refers to the meaning people attach to
symbols, such as words and gestures. Because the same words may have different meanings to different people, semantic differences can create communication problems. One reason for semantic differences relates to the proliferation of specialists in organizations. Specialists tend to develop their own jargon; such terminology may have little meaning to a person outside the specialists field.
9-431
Status Differences
can result from both organizational and individual
factors. Organizations create status differences through titles, offices, and support resources, but individuals attribute meaning to these differences. Status differences can lead to problems of source credibility and can create problems that block upward communication (and thus feedback). To be effective communicators, managers must overcome the status difference that exists between them and the associates reporting to them.
9-432
Consideration of Self-Interest
Often, information provided by a person is used to
assess his or her performance. For example, it is not uncommon for firms to request information from managers about their units performance. Data such as forecasts of future activity, performance standards, and recommendations on capital budgets are often used in determining the managers compensation. Research shows that where data accuracy cannot be independently verified, managers sometimes provide information that is in their own self-interest. Although this does not necessarily mean they intentionally distort information, they may provide incomplete data, selecting only information that is in their own best interests.
9-433
Personal Space
All of us have a personal space surrounding our
bodies. When someone enters that space, we feel uncomfortable. The size of the personal space differs somewhat among individuals; it also differs by gender and across cultures. Women seem to have smaller personal spaces than men. Similarly, the typical personal space in some cultures (such as some European and South American cultures) is smaller than that in other cultures (such as the United States).
9-434
Poor Listening Skills

A frequent problem in communication rests not with the sender but with
the receiver. The receiver must listen in order to hear and understand the senders message, just as the sender must listen to feedback from the receiver. Managers spend more than 50 percent of their time in verbal communication, and some researchers estimate that they spend as much as 85 percent of this time talking. This does not leave much time for listening and receiving feedback. Perhaps more importantly, it has been estimated that managers listen with only about 25 percent efficiency. Therefore, they hear and understand only 25 percent of what is communicated to them verbally. This can lead the speaker to become annoyed and discouraged, thus leaving a bad impression of the listener. Poor listening is not conducive to high-involvement management, because it breaks down the communication process and will limit information sharing.
9-435
Communication Audit
Analysis of an organizations internal and external communication to assess communication practices and capabilities and determine needs
Recommended Audit Methodology
Hold a planning meeting approach and commitment Conduct interviews with top management Collect, inventory, and analyze material Conduct associate interviews
Prepare and administer a questionnaire to measure attitudes toward communication Communicate survey results
9-436
Communication Climates
Associates perceptions regarding the quality of communications within the organization.
Mutual Trust
Credibility
Feedback
9-437
Communication Climates
Organizations can overcome communication barriers by
establishing mutual trust between senders and receivers, communication credibility is present, and feedback is encouraged. Managers also should encourage a free flow of downward, upward, and horizontal communication. People must be comfortable in communicating their ideas openly and in asking questions when they do not understand or they want to know more. Information should be available and understandable. People in organizational units should be allowed to develop their own communication systems independently for an effective communication culture.
9-438
Individual Actions

Know your audience Select an appropriate communication medium Encourage feedback Regulate information flow and timing Listen actively
9-439
Know your audience

communicate with others as if you were
communicating with yourself. To communicate effectively, people must know their audience, including the audiences experience, frames of references, and motivations.
9-440
Select an appropriate communication medium

when messages are important or complex, use of
rich media, such as face-to-face communication, is necessary. Also, when dealing with important and/or complex information, it is best to use several forms of communication for example, by following a face-to-face communication with an e-mail message summarizing the discussion.
9-441
Encourage feedback
Communication is a two-way process. To ensure that the
received message is interpreted as intended, feedback from the recipient is necessary. Some guidelines that individuals can use to obtain feedback include asking recipients to repeat what they have heard, promoting and cultivating feedback, but not trying to force it, rewarding those who provide feedback and using the feedback received and responding to feedback, indicating whether it is correct. In other words, obtaining feedback, using it, and then feeding it back to recipients.
9-442
Regulate information flow and timing

Regulating the flow of information can help to alleviate communication
problems. Regulating flow involves discarding information of marginal importance and conveying only significant information. That is, do not pass on irrelevant information, or else important messages may be buried by information overload or noise. The proper timing of messages is also important. Sometimes people are more likely to be receptive to a message and to perceive it accurately than at other times. Thus, if you have an important message to send, you should not send it when recipients are about to leave work, are fully engaged in some other task, or are receiving other communication. Listen actively poor listening skills are a common barrier to effective communication. People tend to hear and understand only around 25 percent of what is communicated to them verbally. Listening is not a passive, naturally occurring activity. People must actively and consciously listen to others in order to be effective communicators.
9-443
Steps to Effective Listening

Listen empathetically Hear before evaluating
Listen to the whole message
Pay attention
Stop talking
Send feedback
Adapted from Exhibit 9-5: Steps to Effective Listening
9-444

1. Stop talking. Often, we talk more than we
should without giving the other person a chance to respond. If we are thinking about what we will say when we talk, we cannot focus attention on the person we wish to listen to. Do not interrupt.
2. Pay attention. Do not allow yourself to be

distracted by thinking about something else. Often, we need to make an active effort to pay attention when others are speaking.
9-445

3. Listen empathetically. Try to take the
speakers perspective. Mirror the speakers body language and give him or her nonjudgmental encouragement to speak.
4. Hear before evaluating. Do not draw premature

conclusions or look for points of disagreement. Listen to what the person has to say before jumping to conclusions or judgment.
9-446

5. Listen to the whole message. Look for
consistency between the verbal and the nonverbal messages. Try to assess the persons feelings or intentions, as well as just facts.
6. Send feedback. In order to make sure that you

have heard correctly, paraphrase what was heard and repeat it to the person you were listening to.
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8a Decision making
Dawn Ostroffs Decision Making at the CW Television Network

What are your thoughts about Ostroffs decision-making
process regarding programming at the new network?
Given the nature of the decisions needed, did she used the
knowledge and wisdom of her advisors wisely? What are your thoughts about the creative and somewhat risky tactics that were adopted? the future?
Dawn Ostroff Do you think the network will survive and be successful in
Exploring Behavior in Action
Knowledge Objectives
1. Describe the fundamentals of decision making, including
2.
3.
4.
5. 6. 7.
the basic steps and the need to balance ideal and satisfactory decisions. Discuss four important decision-making styles, emphasizing the effectiveness of each one. Explain the role of risk-taking propensity and reference points. Define cognitive bias and explain the effects of common types of cognitive bias on decision making. Discuss common pitfalls of group decision making. Describe key group decision-making techniques. Explain the factors managers should consider in determining the level of associate involvement in managerial decisions.
Fundamentals of Decision Making

Decisions are choices of actions from among multiple feasible alternatives. Making decisions is one of the primary activities of senior managers.
Decisions are also made by managers at all levels and by associates in high-involvement organizations.
Decision-Making Process
Define the Problem
Identify Criteria
Gather and Evaluate Data

Feedback List and Evaluate Alternatives
Select Best Alternative
Implement and Follow Up
Adapted from Exhibit 10-1: The Decision-Making Process
Optimal versus Satisfactory Decisions

Optimal decision Satisficing decision
Decision-Making Styles
Individuals predispositions can affect decision process at two critical stages
Gathering (Perceiving) of Information
Sensing style Intuition style
Carl Jung
Evaluating (Judging) of Alternatives

Thinking style Feeling style
Define the Problem Identify Criteria
Decision-Making Styles
Perceptual Influences
Sensing Using the five senses to identify factual details Intuition
Feedback
Gather and Evaluate Information
Using abstractions and describing the big picture
Judgmental Influences
List and Evaluate Alternatives Select Best Alternative Implement and Follow Up
Objective analysis, rational procedures Thinking
Subjective values with emotional and personal factors Feeling
Adapted from Exhibit 10-2: Influence of Decision Styles
Gathering Information
Sensing
A decision style focused on gathering concrete information directly through the senses, with an emphasis on practical and realistic ideas.
Intuition
A decision style focused on developing abstractions and figurative examples for use in decision making, with an emphasis on imagination and possibilities.
Intuition Style
Valuable when:
A high level of ambiguity exists Few or no precedents exist Facts are limited Facts dont clearly indicate which way to go Time is limited and there is pressure to make the right decision Several plausible alternative solutions exist with good arguments for each
Evaluating Alternatives
Thinking
A decision style focused on objective evaluation and systematic analysis.
Feeling
A decision style focused on subjective evaluation and the emotional reactions of others.
Managerial Advice
Nurturing Alternative Decision Styles

What are your thoughts about the comment that many accountants believe that more data is better and they hide behind a mass of data? What are your thoughts that some marketers have blind spots when it comes to having to do data analysis? What are you thoughts about the Six Thinking Hats concept of Edward de Bono?
Edward de Bono
Degree of Acceptable Risk

Risk exists when the outcome of a chosen course of
action is not certain Risk-taking propensity (Willingness to take chances)
Reference Point
Cognitive Biases
Confirmation bias
Seeking information that confirms early beliefs and ideas
Cognitive Biases
Ease of recall bias

Relying too much on information that is easy to recall from memory Mental shortcuts involving simplified ways of thinking
Sunk-cost bias
Not treating past investments (time, effort, money) as sunkcosts when deciding to continue an investment
Anchoring bias
Emphasizing too much the first piece of information encountered
Mount Everest Expeditions

What role do sunk costs play in many decisions? Why would someone like Rob Hall ignore his predetermined turnaround time? Have you experienced the perils of sunk cost in your work or personal lives? Give examples.
George Mallory (R) and Andrew Irvine

Rob Hall
Sir Edmund Hillary (L) and Tenzing Norgay
Group Decision Making

Some members may arrive with their own expectations,
problem definitions, and pre-determined solutions Some members may have given more thought to the decision situation and what is to be accomplished Focus of the team leader may be in developing a collaborative team rather than developing individual decision making skills
Decision-Making Process
Common Information Bias Groupthink Diversitybased Infighting
Risky Shift
Brainstorming
Devils Advocacy
Nominal Group Technique
Delphi Technique
Dialectical Inquiry
Adapted from Exhibit 10-3: Group Decision-Making Phenomena Pitfalls and Techniques
Group Decision-Making Pitfalls

Groupthink
Common Information Bias
DiversityBased Infighting
Risky Shift
Brainstorming
Nominal Group Technique
Delphi Technique
Dialectical Inquiry
Devils Advocacy
Vroom-Yetton Method
Victor Vroom Philip Yetton
Requires managers to diagnose the problem situation and then determine the extent to which associates will be involved in the decision-making process. The involvement depends on the probable effect participation will have on:
the expected quality of the decision the acceptance or commitment needed from associates to
implement the solution
the amount of time available (and needed) to make the

decision.
Who Should Decide?

Level of Associate Involvement in Decision
Low High
AI
AII
CI
CII
GII
AI Manager solves problem or makes decision alone AII Manager requests information but not alternatives CI Manager explains problem individually but makes decision alone CII Manager explains problem to group, gets suggestions, makes decision alone GII Manager explains problem to group, facilitates problem solving, implements decision supported by the group
Adapted from Exhibit 10-4: Managerial Approaches to Associate Involvement in Decision Making
Vroom-Yetton Method
Questions asked to determine level of associate involvement in decision making
A. Is there a quality requirement such that one solution is likely to be
B. C. D. E.
F.
G.
more rational than another solution, or will any number of solutions work reasonably well? Do I have sufficient information to make a high-quality decision? Is the problem structured (do I know the question to ask and where to look for relevant information)? Is acceptance of the decision by associates critical to effective implementation? If I were to make the decision by myself, is it reasonably certain that it would be accepted by my associates? Do the associates share the organizational goals to be attained in solving this problem? Is conflict among associates likely in preferred solutions?
Adapted from Exhibit 10-5: Decision Tree Method
Vroom-Yetton Method
A B C D E
1-AI Yes
F
2-AI 3-GII
No Yes No Problem No Yes Yes Yes Yes No Yes No
No
4-AI Yes No No Yes 10-AII 9-AII 5-AI Yes 6-GII 7-CII Yes
No
No 8-CI
No
Yes No
Yes No
11-CII Yes No
12_GII
Decision points Recommended strategies

Adapted from Exhibit 10-5: Decision Tree Method
14-CII
13-CII
Vroom-Yetton Model and the Civil War

What are your thoughts regarding the application of the Vroom-Yetton Model to the Civil War battles discussed in the text?
How could you use this model to fight some of your battles in your life?
Value of Individual vs. Group Decision Making

Important considerations for judging the overall value of group decision vs. individual decision making include:
Time Cost
Nature of the Problem
Satisfaction and Commitment
Personal Growth

Advantages
Can accumulate more knowledge and facts and generate better alternatives. Often display superior judgment when evaluating alternatives. Involvement in decisions leads to a higher level of acceptance and satisfaction. Can result in growth for members of the group.
Disadvantages
Take more time to reach decisions than do individuals. Social interactions may lead to premature compromise. Often dominated by one or two decision leaders. Managers may rely too much on group decisions lose their own skills.
Adapted from Exhibit 10-6: Advantages and Disadvantages of Group Decision Making
The Strategic Lens

1. You are a manager of a unit with 25 associates. You have just been informed that you must lay off 20% of the associates in your unit. What process will you follow to make the decision and implement it? If you made a decision that your manager told you was important for the organization and later you learned that you made an error in that decision, what actions would you take? Assume that others will not notice the error for some time. You make decisions on a daily basis. Do you find it difficult to make decisions, especially those of importance? What can you do to improve your decision-making abilities?
2.
3.
9 Conflict and Power

Conflict: The process in which one party
perceives that its interests are being opposed or negatively affected by another party
The Nature of Conflict
Dysfunctional Conflict
Functional Conflict
Conflict
Types of Conflict
Dysfunctional conflict - Conflict that is
detrimental to organizational goals and objectives. Functional conflict - Conflict that is beneficial to organizational goals and objectives.
Effects of Conflict
Effects on Individuals Effects on Behavior
Effects on Interpersonal Relationships
Adapted from Exhibit 12-1: Effects of Conflict
Effects on Individuals
Anger
Hostility
Frustration
Stress
Guilt Low job satisfaction Embarrassment
Effects on Behavior
Reduced motivation and productivity Avoidance of other party Emotional venting Threats Aggression (psychological or physical)
Quitting
Absenteeism Biased perceptions Stereotyped thinking Increased commitment to ones position Demonizing others
Effects of Types of Conflict on Task Performance High

Substantive Conflict Task Performance Personal Conflict
Procedural Conflict
Low Low Degree of Conflict High

Adapted from Exhibit 12-2: The Effects of Different Types of Conflict on Task Performance
Functional Consequences
Improved Problem Solving
Facilitation of Change Enhanced Morale and Cohesion
Potential Benefits of Conflict
Stimulation of Creativity
Spontaneity in Communication
Types of Conflict
Personal Conflict Substantive Conflict
Procedural Conflict
Causes of Conflict
Structural Factors History Communication
Conflict
Individual Characteristics
Cognitive Factors
Conflict Outcomes
High Win-Lose Win-Win
Compromise
Lose-Lose Low
Lose-Win High
Degree of Satisfaction of Party Bs Concern
Adapted from Exhibit 12-3: Possible Conflict Outcomes
Responses to Conflict
High Competing Collaborating
Compromising
Avoiding Low
Accommodating Cooperativeness High
Negotiation
A process by which parties with different preferences and interests attempt to agree on a solution.
Negotiation Strategies
Distributive Bargaining
Integrative Bargaining
10 Organizational Change and Development

Polaroid introduced instant photography to the market. They were one of the top 50 companies in the U.S. But they, like many others, were slow to change. What would you have done differently if you were a senior manager at Polaroid? Can you think of any other companies that were too slow to change and suffered the consequences?
Why is change so difficult to manage?
Pressures for Change

Aspirations Life-Cycle Forces Growing International Interdependence
Technological Advances
Introduction or Removal of Government Regulations
Pressure for Change

Changes in Demographics Changes in Societal Values Shifting Political Dynamics
Adapted from Exhibit 14-1: Internal and External Pressures for Organizational Change
Aspiration-Performance Discrepancies
Gaps between what an individual, unit, or organization
wants to achieve and what it is actually achieving. Three important factors in the role of aspirations
Past aspirations Past performance Comparison with others
Life-Cycle Forces
Natural and predictable pressures that build as an organization grows and that must be addressed if the organization is to continue to grow.
Integrative Life-Cycle Model

Entrepreneurial Stage
Need for stability and structure
Need for additional people
Collectivity Stage
Formalization and Control Stage

Need for balance
Elaboration Stage
Adapted from Exhibit 14-2: Integrative Life-Cycle Model
External Pressures for Change

Technological advances Shifting political dynamics
Introduction and removal of government regulations
Changes in demographics
Changes in societal values
Growing international interdependence
Managerial Advice
Companies Responses to Pressures for Green Policies and Practices
Are companies becoming more green for reasons other than the bottomline? Give some examples. What is your organization doing to become more green? What are you doing personally? Should becoming green be a choice or is legislation needed to make it happen?
Planned Change
A process involving deliberate efforts to move an organization or a unit from its current undesirable state to a new, more desirable state
Awakening Energizing Unfreezing
Mobilizing
Envisioning
Moving
Reinforcing
Enabling
Refreezing
Process of Planned Change

Kurt Lewin
Unfreezing Moving Refreezing
Provide rationale
for change Create minor levels of guilt/anxiety about not changing Create sense of psychological safety concerning change
Provide information
that suspects proposed changes Bring about actual shifts in behavior
Implement new
evaluation systems Create minor levels of guilt/anxiety about not changing Implement new hiring and promotion systems
Adapted from Exhibit 14-3: Process of Planned Change
Coca-Cola Is Finding a New Fizz

Coca-Cola is changing its culture, and also adapting its product line to better satisfy the demand of customers. What are your thoughts about the steps they are taking regarding these changes? Neville Isdell Do you think the new innovations and changes will Sandy have Douglas a positive or a negative impact on their existing brands? Why? What other changes would you suggest to help them remain competitive?
Sources of Failure
1.
2.
Managers and associates should not expect all change activities to occur sequentially. A team of change leaders, rather than a single individual, should guide an organization through a major change effort.
In addition to size, four factors to consider when forming change teams:
Position Power
John Kotter
Informal Credibility Proven Leadership
Expertise
Speed of Change
Urgency Degree of support
Criteria to Consider
Amount and complexity of change
Competitive environment
Knowledge and skills available Financial and other resources
Style of Change
Non-participatory top down, leaders design the change and plan its implementation
Participatory change leaders seek the ideas and advice of associates and then use many of those ideas. Criteria for evaluating the degree to which the participatory style should be used:
Degree of Support Referent and Expert Power of Leaders
Urgency
Resistance to Change
Effort to block new ways of doing things
Four Factors
Lack of understanding Different assessments
Self-interest
Low tolerance for change
British Airways: The Yin and Yang of Organizational Change

Do you think there was any incentive for British Airways to change prior to deregulation? Why do you think the changes were effective? Given the problems faced by all the major airlines at the time, why do you think there was still so much resistance to the changes?
What other changes would you recommend at this time?
Willie Walsh
The DADA syndrome

Denial ignore possible or current change Anger individuals facing unwanted change
become angry about the change
Depression individuals experience

emotional lows
Acceptance individuals embrace the

reality of the situation and make the best of it
Organization Development (OD)

A planned, organization-wide, continuous process designed to improve communication, problem solving, and learning through the application of behavioral science knowledge
Roots in humanistic psychology Grounded in values of individual empowerment and
interpersonal cooperation Fully consistent with the high-involvement management approach
Basic Organization Development Model

Diagnosis of Situation
Feedback
Introduction of interventions
Progress Monitoring
Adapted from Exhibit 14-4: Basic Organization Development Model
Organization Development Interventions

Organization Development
Relationship Techniques
Structural Techniques
T-group Training Team Building Survey Feedback
Job Redesign Management by Objectives Supplemental Organizational Processes
Adapted from Exhibit 14-5: Organization Development Interventions
Relationship Techniques
T-group Training
Team Building
Survey Feedback
Team Building Tips

Get the right people together for a large block of uninterrupted time to work on high-priority problems or opportunities that they have identified and have them work in ways that are structured to enhance the likelihood of realistic solutions and action plans, which are then implemented enthusiastically and followed up to assess actual versus expected results.
Job Redesign
Structural Techniques
Management by Objectives (MBO)
Supplemental Organizational Processes
Organizational Learning
Exploitative Learning Exploratory Learning
Organization Development Across Cultures

Flexibility
Ethnocentric Attitude and Stereotyping
Knowledge of Specific Cultures Interpersonal Sensitivity
The Strategic Lens

1. 2. 3. Why do organizations need to make changes on a regular basis? What are the major causes of these changes? Why is it so difficult for people to change their behavior, even when they know it is important to do so? If you were in a managerial position and believed that a major change in your units structure was needed, what actions would you take to ensure that the change was made effectively?

Organizational Behavior

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Organizational Behavior

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Organization Behaviour

Process of behavior change based on positive or

produces an unconditioned response.

as a result of being paired with an unconditioned stimulus, elicits a response.

occurs naturally in the presence of a given stimulus.

called forth by a previously neutral stimulus (the conditioned stimulus.)

Operant conditioning: an explanation for

Behavior is learned as a function of its consequence

higher mental functioning

Social learning theory

Positive consequences, or removal of negative ones, reinforces behavioral response

New Response to the Situation

Organizational Behavior Mod

The Basic Steps of O.B. Mod.

Measure the frequency of the behavior.

Adapted from Exhibit 4-3: Shaping Behavior Through OB Modification

Adapted from Exhibit 4-3: Shaping Behavior Through OB Modification

Adapted from Exhibit 4-3: Shaping Behavior Through OB Modification

Advanced Learning Concepts

consequences of an action Unclear feedback Learning from failure

Low Probability-High Consequence Events

Causal Relationships at a Sports Club

Exhibit 4-4 Casual Relationships at a Sports Club

result of certain kinds of actions

Sensing various characteristics

Three Stages of Perception

Three Stages of Perception

Three Stages of Perception

Characteristics of the Perceiver That Affect Perception

Nature of the Situation

Nature of the Situation

basis of only one or two central characteristics

negatively in all situations based on an existing general assessment of the person

values and beliefs

External Attribution assigns the cause of

behavior to factors external to the person.

High Consistency Low

Adapted from Exhibit 4-6 Attribution Theory

Attributions of Success and Failure

Success and Failure

External Internal External Internal

Low High Individual Behavior Consensus Low High Consistency Low

Adapted from Exhibit 4.6 Attribution Theory

Attributions of Success and Failure

Shortcuts in judging others

Personality traits are individual psychological

Personality traits are major determinants of ones

Major determinants of ones behavior

Determinants of Personality Development

Nurture: Life experiences.

The Interaction of Personality and Situational Factors

The Big Five Model

Big Five Personality Traits

Big Five Personality Traits

Openness to experience Emotional stability

Adapted from: Exhibit 5.1 The Big Five Personality Traits

Big Five Personality Traits

Big Five Personality Traits

Specific traits include trust,

Neuroticism/ Emotional stability

Cognitive and Motivational Properties of Personality

Cognitive and Motivational Properties of Personality