Chapter 5 Design for Different Types of Loading

Part 1 Types of stress and loading, stress ratio, endurance strength, design factors Part 2 Failure theories E. R. Evans, Jr./ R. Michael MET 210W

Static Load

F and P are applied and remain constant

Stress

Stress Ratio, R = 1.0

Time

Dynamic Stress:
Loads that vary during normal service of the product produce dynamic stress. Dynamic stress can be cyclic or random. High cycle fatigue part subject to millions of stress cycles.

Examples: Parts subject to dynamic stress?

Cyclic loads produce cyclic stress which can lead to mechanical fatigue failure:

Mechanical Fatigue = The progressive and localized structural damage that occurs when a material is subjected to cyclic loading. The cyclic stress is well below tensile, Su and yield, Sy , strengths!

Types of Cyclic Stress:

1. Repeated and Reversed (i.e. RR Moore, rotating shafts, etc.) mean stress = 0.
2. Fluctuating stress (mean stress not zero): a. Tensile mean stress (can cycle between tension and compression or all tension) b. Compressive mean stress (can cycle between tension and compression or all compression) c. Repeated, one-direction stress

Definitions:
max min a 2 2
= Alternating stress

max min
2
= R value:

= Mean stress

m in R m ax

R = 0, repeated and one direction, i.e. stress cycles from 0 to max value. R =-1, Fully reversed (R-R Moore)

1.Repeated & Reversed Stress

an element subjected to a repeated and alternating tensile and compressive stresses.

Continuous total load reversal over time

Demo: Switch to Excel

1.Repeated and Reversed Stress

m in R 1 m ax

The average or mean stress is zero.

Cyclic loading. (a) Very low amplitude acoustic vibration. (b) High-cycle fatigue: cycling well below general yield, y. (c) Low cycle fatigue: cycling abovegeneral yield (but below the tensile strength ts).

All stresses above are repeated and reversed (R = -1)

Fatigue Testing
Bending tests
R-R More = Spinning bending elements most common.
Fast, cost effective, pure bending stress See: http://www.instron.co.uk/wa/solutions/rotating_beam_fatigue.aspx

Fatigue Testing
Bending tests
Sontag = Constant stress cantilever beams
Good for flat stock (sheets) Get shear stress in addition to bending stress.

Top View

Specimen

Fatigue Testing

Test Data

Stress, (ksi)

Number of Cycles to Failure, N

Data from R. B. Englund, 2/5/93

Endurance
Endurance strength is the stress level that a material can survive for a given number of load cycles. Endurance limit is the stress level that a material can survive for an infinite number of load cycles. Estimate for Wrought Steel: Endurance Strength = 0.50(Su) Most nonferrous metals (aluminum) do not have an endurance limit.

Representative Endurance Strengths

Estimated endurance strength of steel is about 0.50 * Su

2. Fluctuating Stress
When an element experiences alternating stress, but the mean stress is NOT zero.

Load varies between P and Q over time

2.Fluctuating Stress Example

Bending of Rocker Arm
Valve Spring Force Valve Open

Valve Closed

Tension in Valve Stem

Valve Closed
Valve Open
Adapted from R. B. Englund

Valve Spring Force

RBE 2/1/91

Types of Fluctuating Stress:

Tensile Stress w/ Tensile Mean

Case 1:
max min a 2 max min m 2

Partially Reversed w/ Tensile Mean

Case 2:
max min a 2 max min m 2

max is tensile and min is compressive

Partially Reversed w/ Compressive Mean

Case 3:
max min a 2 max min m 2

max is tensile and min is compressive

Compressive Stress w/ Compressive Mean

Case 4:
max min a 2 max min m 2

max and min are both compressive

Repeated One Direction Stress

Case 5:

Example of the Effect of Stress Ratio on Endurance Strength of a Material

Mott, Fig. 5-11, Pg. 180

Stages of Fatigue:
1. Micro structural changes nucleation of permanent damage (mm) 2. Creation of microscopic cracks (mm) 3. Growth and coalescence of cracks into dominant crack (striations). 4. Stable crack growth (Beach marks) 5. Instability and rapid failure (area goes down, stress goes up eventually exceeding tensile strength).

Stages of Fatigue:
1. Micro structural changes nucleation of permanent damage (mm) 2. Creation of microscopic cracks (mm)

These two steps = crack initiation = 99% of the total life!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! Key: prevent cracks from forming at surface!!!!!!!!!!

B Instantaneuos Fast Fracture! A Crack nucleation and Growth

The endurance limit plotted against the tensile strength. Almost all materials

fail in fatigue at stresses well below the tensile strength.

Design Factor
Analysis
Failure Strength Factor of Safety Applied Stress Example : N Sy

Design
Failure Strength Allow able Stress Design Factor Example : ALLOW Sy N

Factors Effecting Design Factor

Application Environment Loads Types of Stresses Material Confidence

Factors Effecting Design Factor

Application
Environment Loads Types of Stresses Material Confidence
How many will be produced?

What manufacturing methods will be used?

What are the consequences of failure? Danger to people Cost Size and weight important? What is the life of the component? Justify design expense?

Factors Effecting Design Factor

Application Temperature range.

Environment
Loads Types of Stresses Material Confidence

Exposure to electrical voltage or current.

Susceptible to corrosion

Is noise control important?

Is vibration control important? Will the component be protected? Guard Housing

Factors Effecting Design Factor

Application Environment

Loads
Types of Stresses Material Confidence

Nature of the load considering all modes of operation: Startup, shutdown, normal operation, any foreseeable overloads

Load characteristic Static, repeated & reversed, fluctuating, shock or impact Variations of loads over time.
Magnitudes Maximum, minimum, mean

Factors Effecting Design Factor

Application Environment Loads What kind of stress? Direct tension or compression Direct shear Bending Torsional shear

Types of Stresses
Material Confidence

Application Uniaxial Biaxial Triaxial

Factors Effecting Design Factor

Application Environment Loads Types of Stresses Material properties

Ultimate strength, yield strength, endurance strength,

Ductility Ductile: Brittle:

Material
Confidence

%E 5% %E < 5%

Ductile materials are preferred for fatigue, shock or impact loads.

Factors Effecting Design Factor

Application Environment Loads Types of Stresses Material Reliability of data for Loads Material properties Stress calculations How good is manufacturing quality control Will subsequent handling, use and environmental conditions affect the safety or life of the component?

Confidence

Recommended Design Factors

Confidence in material properties, analysis, loads, the environment, etc.

See Mott, pages 185 - 186

Design Factor