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= v = A
hc
h E
m/s) 10 x (3.00 light of speed c
) s J 10 62 . 6 ( constant s Planck'
frequency
wavelength
energy
8
34
=
=
= v
=
= A
x h
E
Important numbers:
Our Eyes Can ONLY see:
0.4 to 0.7 m
1.65 eV to 3.1 eV
4.3x10
14
to 7.5x10
14
Hz
Figure 20.1 The electromagnetic spectrum of radiation; the bandgaps
and cutoff frequencies for some optical materials are also shown.
(Source: From Optoelectronics: An Introduction to Materials and
Devices, by J. Singh. Copyright 1996 The McGraw-Hill Companies.
Reprinted by permission of The McGraw-Hill Companies.)
Index of refraction - Relates the change in velocity and
direction of radiation as it passes through a transparent
medium (also known as refractive index).
Dispersion - Frequency dependence of the refractive
index.
Reflectivity - The percentage of incident radiation that is
reflected.
Linear absorption coefficient - Describes the ability of a
material to absorb radiation.
Photoconduction - Production of a voltage due to the
stimulation of electrons into the conduction band by light
radiation.
Section 20.2
Refraction, Reflection, Absorption,
and Transmission
2003 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc. Thomson Learning
The angle
t
is:
2003 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc. Thomson Learning
2
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Figure 20.6
Relationships between
absorption and the
energy gap: (a) metals,
(b) Dielectrics and
intrinsic semiconductors,
and (c) extrinsic
semiconductors.
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Figure 20.7 (a)
Photoconduction in
semiconductors involves
the absorption of a
stimulus by exciting
electrons from the valence
band to the conduction
band. Rather than
dropping back to the
valence band to cause
emission, the excited
electrons carry a charge
through an electrical
circuit. (b) A solar cell
takes advantage of this
effect.
2003 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc. Thomson Learning
2
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Figure 20.9 When an
accelerated electron
strikes and interacts
with a material, its
energy may be reduced
in a series of steps. In
the process, several
photons of different
energies E
1
to E
5
are
emitted, each with a
unique wavelength.
46
12/27/2013
X-Rays
Electromagnetic radiation with short
wavelengths
Wavelengths less than for ultraviolet
Wavelengths are typically about 0.1 nm
X-rays have the ability to penetrate most
materials with relative ease
Discovered and named by Roentgen
in 1895
47
12/27/2013
Production of X-rays
X-rays are produced when
high-speed electrons are
suddenly slowed down
Can be caused by the
electron striking a metal
target
A current in the filament
causes electrons to be
emitted
These freed electrons are
accelerated toward a dense
metal target
The target is held at a
higher potential than the
filament
48
12/27/2013
Production of X-rays
An electron passes near a
target nucleus
The electron is deflected
from its path by its
attraction to the nucleus
This produces an
acceleration
It will emit
electromagnetic radiation
when it is accelerated
49
12/27/2013
Diffraction of X-rays by Crystals
For diffraction to occur, the spacing
between the lines must be
approximately equal to the
wavelength of the radiation to be
measured
For X-rays, the regular array of atoms
in a crystal can act as a three-
dimensional grating for diffracting X-
rays
50
12/27/2013
Schematic for X-ray Diffraction
A continuous beam of X-
rays is incident on the
crystal
The diffracted radiation is
very intense in certain
directions
These directions
correspond to constructive
interference from waves
reflected from the layers
of the crystal
The diffraction pattern is
detected by photographic
film
51
12/27/2013
X-ray
spectrum
2003 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc. Thomson Learning
is a trademark used
herein under license.
Figure 20.10 The continuous and characteristic spectra of radiation
emitted from a material. Low-energy stimuli produce a continuous
spectrum of low-energy, long-wavelength photons. A more intense,
higher energy spectrum is emitted when the stimulus is more powerful
until, eventually, characteristic radiation is observed.
2003 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc. Thomson Learning
2
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Figure 20.12 Elements have a
selective lack of absorption of
certain wavelengths. If a filter
is selected with an absorption
edge between the K
and K
peaks of an x-ray spectrum, all
x-rays except K
are absorbed
(for Example 20.6).
Example 20.6 SOLUTION
When determining a crystal structure or identifying
unknown materials using various x-ray diffraction
techniques, we prefer to use x-rays of a single
wavelength. If both K
and K
peak. Table 20-2 includes the information that we need. If
a filter material is selected; such that the absorption edge
lies between the K
and K
is
almost completely absorbed, whereas the K
is almost
completely transmitted. In nickel, K
= 1.660 and K
=
1.500 . A filter with an absorption edge between these
characteristic peaks will work. Cobalt, with an absorption
edge of 1.608 , would be our choice. Figure 20-12 shows
how this filtering process occurs.
Design a filter to transmit at least 95% of the energy of a
beam composed of zinc K
x-rays.
Suppose an electron accelerated at 5000 V strikes a copper
target. Will K
, K
,
or L
is 1.542 , K
is 1.392 , and L
is 13.357 .
Therefore, the L
and K
will
not.
The micrograph in Figure 20.13 was obtained using a
scanning electron microscope at a magnification of 1000. The
beam of electrons in the SEM was directed at the three
different phases, creating x-rays and producing the
characteristic peaks. From the energy spectra, determine the
probable identity of each phase. Assume each region
represents a different phase.
Example 20.9
Energy Dispersive X-ray Analysis (EDXA)
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Figure 20.13
Scanning electron
micrograph of a
multiple-phase
material. The
energy distribution
of emitted radiation
from the three
phases marked A, B,
and C is shown.
The identity of each
phase is determined
in Example 20.9.
Example 20.9 SOLUTION
All three phases have an energy peak of about 1.5 keV =
1500 eV, which corresponds to a wavelength of:
In a similar manner, energies and wavelengths can be
found for the other peaks. The identity of the elements in
each phase can be found, as summarized in the table.
Example 20.9 SOLUTION (Continued)
Thus, phase A appears to be an aluminum matrix, phase
B appears to be a silicon needle (perhaps containing some
aluminum), and phase C appears to be an Al-Si-Mn-Fe
compound. Actually, this is an aluminum-silicon alloy. The
stable phases are aluminum and silicon, with inclusions
forming when manganese and iron are present as
impurities.
2
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Figure 20.14
Luminescence occurs when
photons have a wavelength
in the visible spectrum. (a)
In metals, there is no
energy gap, so lumine-
scence does not occur. (b)
Fluorescence occurs when
there is an energy gap. (c)
Phosphorescence occurs
when the photons are
emitted over a period of
time due to donor traps in
the energy gap.
Select a phosphor material that will produce a blue image
on a television screen.
Example 20.10
Design/Materials Selection for
a Television Screen
Figure 20.1 The
electromagnetic spectrum
of radiation; the bandgaps
and cutoff frequencies for
some optical materials are
also shown. (Source: From
Optoelectronics: An
Introduction to Materials
and Devices, by J. Singh.
Copyright 1996 The
McGraw-Hill Companies.
Reprinted by permission of
The McGraw-Hill
Companies.)
Example 20.10 SOLUTION
Photons having energies that correspond to the color blue
have wavelengths of about 4.5 10
-5
cm (Figure 20.1).
The energy of the emitted photons therefore is:
Typical phosphorescent materials for television screens
might include CaWO
4
, which produces photons with a
wavelength of 4.3 10
-5
cm (blue).
2003 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc. Thomson Learning
k
m
)
-10 1600 1700 1400 1300 1200 1500
10
SMF NZDSF
DSF
Polarization Mode Dispersion
(PMD)
Single-mode fiber actually transmits two
modes
Modes have opposite states of polarization
Severe limitation at 10 Gb/s over distances > 50 km
Power is randomly coupled between the
two modes
PMD of a link fluctuates significantly over time
Components can exhibit PMD as well
mostly constant PMD
manufacturers trying to
minimize it by design
Cable Designs
Mechanical design:
Indoor, outdoor, submarine
Local or national building and
construction codes may apply
Electrical designs:
No metal or electrical wires at all
Power wires (supply for remote
amplifiers or regenerators)
Optical
fibers
Tube
Strain relief
(e.g., Kevlar)
Inner
jacket
Sheath
Outer
jacket
Issues Of Connecting Fibers
Offset Angular
Misalignment
Separation
Core Eccentricity Core Ellipticity
Reflections &
Interference
Medium insertion loss:
Worst return loss:
< 14 dB (Fresnel)
Common multimode
fiber connector
Air Gap
typ. 0.5 dB
Lowest insertion loss:
< 0.25 dB
Good return loss:
Common single-mode
fiber connector
Physical Contact
(PC)
> 40 dB
Highest insertion loss:
Best return loss:
Cable TV, high
performance systems
Angled Physical
Contact (APC)
0.4 to 0.9 dB
> 60 dB
Connector Types
8
Figure 20.21 Different types of
optical fibers. (a) A step index glass
fiber, in which the index or refrac-
tion is slightly different in each glass.
(b) The profile of a refractive index in
a graded refractive index (GRIN)
fiber. (c) The path of rays entering at
different angles. [1,5]