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Introduction
• Unless otherwise specified, we will assume that the conduit is round (pipe).
• Pipe is assumed to be completely full of the flowing fluid.
• For open-channel flow (b), gravity alone is the driving force – water flows down a
hill.
• For pipe flow (a), gravity may be important, but the main driving force is a pressure
gradient along the pipe.
• If pipe is not full, it is not possible to maintain this pressure difference.
Laminar of Turbulent Flow
VD
Re
• Reynolds number range for which laminar, transitional, or turbulent pipe flows are
obtained cannot be precisely given.
• Flow in round pipe is laminar if Re is less than approximately 2100
• Flow is round pipe is turbulent if Re is greater than approximately 4000
Entrance Region and Fully Developed Flow
• Region of flow near where fluid enters the pipe is termed the entrance region
• Fluid typically enters the pipe with a nearly uniform velocity profile at section (1).
Entrance Region and Fully Developed Flow
• As the fluid moves through the pipe, viscous effects cause it to stick to the pipe
wall (no-sip condition). Boundary layer in which viscous effects are important is
produced along the wall. Initial velocity profile changes with distance along pipe,
x.
Entrance Region and Fully Developed Flow
• Beyond section (2) velocity profile does not vary with x. Boundary layer has grown
in thickness to completely fill the pipe.
Entrance Region and Fully Developed Flow
• Viscous effects are of considerable importance within the boundary layer.
• For fluid outside the boundary layer (within inviscid core) viscous effects are
negligible
Entrance Region and Fully Developed Flow
• Dimensionless entrance length:
le le
4.4 Re
16
0.06 Re for laminar flow for turbulent flow
D D
Entrance Region and Fully Developed Flow
• Flow between (2) and (3) is termed fully developed.
• Fully developed flow is interrupted by bend, valves etc. Beyond the interruption
flow gradually begins its return to its fully developed character.
Pressure and Shear Stress
• Flow in horizontal pipe is driven by pressure difference.
• Nonzero pressure gradient is a result of viscous effects (if viscosity were zero,
pressure would not vary with x). Work done by pressure forces is needed to
overcome the viscous dissipation of energy through the fluid.
• In fully developed flow region viscous force exactly balances pressure force (fluid
flows with no acceleration).
• In non-fully developed flow regions fluid accelerates of decelerates (velocity
profile changes). Thus, in the entrance region there is a balance between pressure,
viscous, and inertia (acceleration) forces.
• Magnitude of the pressure gradient, ∂p/∂x, is larger in the entrance region than in
the fully developed region, where it is constant, ∂p/∂x = –Δp/l < 0 (figure)
• Laminar flow differs from turbulent due to different nature of shear stress in
laminar and turbulent flows.
Fully Developed Laminar Flow
• Velocity profile in fully developed flow is the same at any cross section of the pipe.
• If velocity profile is known, other flow information such as pressure drop, head
loss, flowrate and the like can be obtained.
• Details of the velocity profiles are different for laminar and turbulent flows.
• Equation for velocity profile in fully developed laminar flow (and other important
results) can be derived:
– from F = ma applied directly to fluid element,
– from Navier-Stokes equations of motion,
– from dimensional analysis.
Velocity variation in radial direction, combined with fluid viscosity, produces shear
stress
If gravity force is neglected, the pressure varies only in x direction. If pressure
decreases in x direction, then
p2 p1 p p 0
Fully Developed Laminar Flow
Basic pipe flow is governed by a balance between viscous and pressure forces.
Fully Developed Laminar Flow
Shear stress varies from zero (at r = 0) to the wall shear stress (at r = D/2)
2 r
w (b)
D
Pressure drop and wall shear stress are related by
4l w
p (c)
D
For laminar flow of Newtonian fluid
du
(d)
dr
Fully Developed Laminar Flow
Combining eqs. (a) and (d) and integrating obtain velocity profile (details)
pD 2 2r 2r
2 2
u r 1 Vc 1 (e)
16 l D D
where Vc is the centerline velocity. In terms of wall shear stress:
wD r
2
u r 1 (f)
4 R
Volume flowrate:
R 2Vc
Q udA (g)
2
Average velocity
Q Vc pD 2
V back (h)
A 2 32 l
Fully Developed Laminar Flow
D 4 p
Q (i)
128 l
The flow is termed Hagen-Pouseuille flow and equation (e) is commonly referred to as
Poiseuille’s law
Fully Developed Laminar Flow
p l sin D 4
Q
128 l
Fully Developed Laminar Flow
or 8 w
f
V 2
Fully Developed Laminar Flow
where kinetic energy coefficient α accounts for nonuniform velocity profile. For fully
developed flow α1 = α2 and
p1 p2
z
1 z 2 hL
p 2
With
l r
2 l 4l w
hL
r D
Head loss in a pipe is a result of the viscous shear stress on the wall
Fully Developed Laminar Flow. Summary
Velocity profile
wD r
2
pD 2
2
2 r u r
u r 1 1
16 l D 4 R
pD 2 Vc pD 2
Vc V
16 l 2 32 l
Poiseuille’s law
D 4 p p l sin D 4
Q Q
128 l 128 l
Head loss
2 l 4l w
hL
r D
Fully Developed Turbulent Flow
Transition from Laminar to Turbulent Flow
Transition from laminar to turbulent flow in a pipe occurs at 2100 < Re < 4000
Turbulent Flow
1 t0 T
u u x, y, z , t dt
T t0
The fluctuating part of the velocity, u’ is that time-varying portion that differs from the
average value
u u u or u u u
more details
du du
? Turbulent Shear Stress
dy dy
du
u v lam turb
dy
If flow is laminar, than u v 0, and above equation reduces to laminar shear stress
For turbulent flow it is found that turbulent shear stress, turb u v, is positive. Hence,
shear stress is greater in turbulent flow than in laminar flow.
Term of the form u v or vw, etc. are called Reynolds stresses.
Structure of turbulent flow in a pipe. (a) Shear stress. (b) Average velocity
more...
Dimensional Analysis of Turbulent Flow
Most turbulent pipe flow information is based on experimental data and semiempirical
formulas, even if flow is fully developed.
Fundamental difference between laminar and turbulent flow is that the shear stress for
turbulent flow is a function of the density of the fluid, ρ (Reynolds stresses).
For turbulent flow there is a relatively thin viscous sublayer formed in the fluid near
the pipe wall. If a wall roughness element protrudes sufficiently far into (or even
through) this layer, the structure and properties of the viscous sublayer (along with
Δp and τw) will be different than if the wall were smooth. Thus, for turbulent flow
pressure drop is the function of the wall roughness.
Pressure drop for steady, incompressible turbulent flow in a horizontal round pipe of
diameter D can be written in functional form as
p F V , D, l , , ,
where V is the average velocity, l is the pipe length, and ε is a measure of the
roughness of the pipe wall.
Dimensional Analysis of Turbulent Flow
In dimensionless form:
p VD l
, ,
V D D
1 2
2
where ε/D is a relative roughness. Assuming that pressure drop is proportional to the
pipe length we have
p l
Re,
1
2
V 2
D D
With
f p D l V 2 2 pressure drop can be written as
l V 2
p f
D 2
where
l
f Re,
D
Dimensional Analysis of Turbulent Flow
For laminar fully developed flow, the value of f is f = 64/Re, independent of ε/D.
For turbulent flow, functional dependence f = φ(Re, ε/D) is a complex one that cannot,
as yet, be obtained from theoretical analysis. Results are obtained from experiment
and presented in terms of curve-fitting formula or graphical form.
From energy equation for steady incompressible fully developed flow in constant
diameter (D1 = D2 so that V1 = V2) horizontal pipe follows that
l V2
hL f
D 2g
This equation, called the Darcy-Weisbach equation, is valid for any fully developed,
steady, incompressible pipe flow – whether pipe is horizontal or on a hill.
Friction Factor
Original data of Nikuradse were correlated by L.F. Moody and C.F. Colebrook and
presented in Moody chart and Colebrook formula
1 D 2.51
2.0 log
f 3.7 Re f
Typical roughness values for various pipe surfaces are given in table
Example 8.5 Air under standard conditions flow through a 4.0-mm-diameter drawn
tubing with an average velocity of V = 50 m/s. For such conditions the flow would
normally be turbulent. However, if precautions are taken to eliminate disturbances to
the flow (the entrance to the tube is very smooth, the air is dust free, the tube does not
vibrate, etc.), it may be possible to maintain laminar flow. (a) Determine the pressure
drop in a 0.1-m section of the tube if the flow is laminar. (b) Repeat the calculations if
the low is turbulent.
Re VD 13700
(a) If the flow were laminar, then f = 64/Re = 0.00467, and the pressure drop:
l V 2
p f 0.179 kPa
D 2
(b) If the flow were turbulent, then from table ε = 0.0015 mm so that ε/D = 0.000375.
From Moody chart, with Re = 1,37x104 and ε/D = 0.000375, f = 0.028. Pressure drop:
l V 2
p f 1.076 kPa
D 2
Minor Losses
Minor Losses
Losses occur in straight pipes (major losses) and pipe system components (minor
losses)
Major losses can be calculated by use of friction factor obtained from Moody chart
hL p
KL
V 2 2g 1
2
V 2
V2
hL K L
2g
Minor Losses
In most cases of practical interest the loss coefficients for components are function of
geometry
K L geometry
In this terminology, head loss through component is given in terms of the equivalent
length of pipe tat would produce the same head loss as the component. That is
V2 leq V 2
hL K L f
2g D 2g
or
KL D
leq
f
Entrance flow conditions and loss coefficient. (a) Reentrant, KL = 0.8, (b) sharp-edged, KL =
0.5, (c) slightly rounded, KL = 0.2, well-rounded, KL = 0.04
Minor Losses
Exit flow conditions and loss coefficient. (a) Reentrant, KL = 1.0, (b) sharp-edged, KL = 1.0,
(c) slightly rounded, KL = 1.0, well-rounded, KL = 1.0
Minor Losses
Noncircular duct
Noncircular Conduits
Fully Developed Laminar Flow
Friction factor
C
f
Re h
where constant C depends on the shape of the duct, and Reh is based on hydraulic
diameter
VDh
Re h
Hydraulic diameter is also used in definition of relative roughness, ε/Dh , and head loss
l V2
hL f
Dh 2 g
Noncircular Conduits
Fully Developed Turbulent Flow
Calculations for fully developed turbulent flow in ducts of noncircular cross section
are usually carried out by using the Moody chart data for round pipes with the
diameter replaced by the hydraulic diameter and the Reynolds number based on the
hydraulic diameter.
If grater accuracy is needed, a more detailed analysis based on the specific geometry
on interest is needed
END
Supplementary slides
Typical Pipe System
back
(a) Experiment to illustrate type of flow. (b) Typical dye streaks
back
Time dependence of fluid velocity at a point
back
Pressure distribution along a horizontal pipe
back
Turbulent Flow
u
1
T t0
t0 T
u u dt
1
T
t0
t0 T
udt
t0
t0 T
udt
1
T
Tu Tu 0
1 t0 T
u u
2 2
dt 0
T t0
back
Turbulent Velocity profile
u yu *
u* v
In overlap region
u yu *
*
2.5ln 5.0
u v
where friction velocity:
w
u*
back
Flow in the viscous sublayer
near rough and smooth walls
back
Moody Chart
back
back
back