Chap.

4
Incompressible Flow over
Airfoils
OUTLINE
Airfoil nomenclature and characteristics
The vortex sheet
The Kutta condition
Kelvins circulation theorem
Classical thin airfoil theory
The cambered airfoil
The vortex panel numerical method
Airfoil nomenclature and characteristics
Nomenclature
Characteristics

The vortex sheet
Vortex sheet with
strength =(s)
Velocity at P induced by
a small section of vortex
sheet of strength ds


For velocity potential (to
avoid vector addition as
for velocity)
r
ds
dV
t

=
2
u
t

=
2
ds
d
The velocity potential at P
due to entire vortex sheet


The circulation around the
vortex sheet


The local jump in tangential
velocity across the vortex
sheet is equal to .
}
u
t
=
b
a
ds
2
1
}
=
b
a
ds I
0 ,
2 1
= dn u u
Calculate (s) such that the induced velocity field
when added to V will make the vortex sheet
(hence the airfoil surface) a streamline of the flow.
The resulting lift is given by Kutta-Joukowski
theorem

Thin airfoil approximation
I

=
'
V L

The Kutta condition
Statement of the Kutta condition
The value of I around the airfoil is such that the
flow leaves the trailing edge smoothly.
If the trailing edge angle is finite, then the trailing
edge is a stagnation point.
If the trailing edge is cusped, then the velocity
leaving the top and bottom surface at the trailing
edge are finite and equal.
Expression in terms of
0 ) TE ( =

Kelvins circulation theorem
Statement of Kelvins circulation theorem
The time rate of change of circulation around a
closed curve consisting of the same fluid elements
is zero.

Classical thin airfoil theory
Goal
To calculate (s) such that the camber line
becomes a streamline.
Kutta condition (TE)=0 is satisfied.
Calculate I around the airfoil.
Calculate the lift via the Kutta-Joukowski theorem.
Approach
Place the vortex sheet on
the chord line, whereas
determine =(x) to make
camber line be a
streamline.
Condition for camber line
to be a streamline

where w'(s) is the
component of velocity
normal to the camber line.
0 ) (
,
=
'
+

s w V
n
Expression of V,n


For small o



(

+ o =


) ( tan sin
1
,
dx
dz
V V
n
) (
) ( ) ( , tan sin
,
dx
dz
V V
x w s w
n
o =
~
'
u ~ u ~ u

Expression for w(x)


Fundamental equation of
thin airfoil theory





) (
) (
2
1
0
dx
dz
V
x
d
c
o =


t

}
}
t

=
c
x
d
x w
0
) ( 2
) (
) (
For symmetric airfoil (dz/dx=0)
Fundamental equation for ()


Transformation of , x into u


Solution

o =


t

}
V
x
d
c
0
) (
2
1
) cos 1 (
2
, ) cos 1 (
2
0
u = u =
c
x
c
u
u +
o = u

sin
) cos 1 (
2 ) ( V
Check on Kutta condition by LHospitals rule


Total circulation around the airfoil


Lift per unit span
0
cos
sin
2 ) ( =
t
t
o = t

V

to = =
}
cV d
c
0
) (
2

to = =
'
V c V L I
Lift coefficient and lift slope


Moment about leading edge and moment coefficient

t =
o
to =
'
=

2 , 2
d
dc
c q
L
c
l
l
4 2

2
2
,
2
0
l LE
le m
c
LE
c
c q
M
c
c q L d M
=
to
=
'
=
to
=
'
=
'

}
Moment coefficient about quarter-chord




For symmetric airfoil, the quarter-chord point is
both the center of pressure and the aerodynamic
center.





0
4
4 / ,
, 4 / ,
=
+ =
c m
l
le m c m
c
c
c c

The cambered airfoil
Approach
Fundamental equation


Solution


Coefficients A0 and An
) (
cos cos
sin ) (
2
1
0
0
dx
dz
V
d
o =
u u
u u
t

t
}
|
.
|

\
|
u +
u
u +
= u

1
0
sin
sin
cos 1
2 ) (
n
n
n A A V
} }
t t
u u
t
= u
t
o =
0
0 0
0
0 0
cos
2
,
1
d n
dx
dz
A d
dx
dz
A
n
Aerodynamic coefficients
Lift coefficient and slope


Form thin airfoil theory, the lift slope is always 2t
for any shape airfoil.
Thin airfoil theory also provides a means to
predict the angle of zero lift.
t =
o
(

u u
t
+ o t =
}
t
2 , ) 1 (cos
1
2
0
0 0
d
dc
d
dx
dz
c
l
l
0 0
0
0
) 1 (cos
1
u u
t
= o
}
t
=
d
dx
dz
L
Moment coefficients




For cambered airfoil, the quarter-chord point is
not the center of pressure, but still is the
theoretical location of the aerodynamic center.
) (
4
) (
4 4
1 2 4 / ,
2 1 ,
A A c
A A
c
c
c m
l
le m

t
=
(

t
+ =
The location of the center of pressure


Since

the center of pressure is not convenient for
drawing the force system. Rather, the
aerodynamic center is more convenient.
The location of aerodynamic center
(

t
+ = ) ( 1
4
2 1
A A
c
c
x
l
cp
0 as
l cp
c x
0
4 / ,
0
0
0
, where , 25 . 0 m
d
dc
a
d
dc
a
m
x
c m
l
ac

o

o
+ =

The vortex panel numerical method
Why to use this method
For airfoil thickness larger than 12%, or high angle of
attack, results from thin airfoil theory are not good
enough to agree with the experimental data.
Approach
Approximate the
airfoil surface by
a series of straight
panels with strength
which is to be
determined.
j

The velocity potential induced at P due to the j th

panel is


The total potential at P


Put P at the control point of i th panel
j
j
pj j j
j
pj j
x x
y y
ds

= u u
t
=

}
1
tan ,
2
1
A

2
) (
1 1
j
j
pj
n
j
j
n
j
j
ds P
}

u
t

= =
= =
A

2
) , (
1
j
j
ij
n
j
j
i i
ds y x
}

u
t

=
=
The normal component of the velocity is zero at
the control points, i.e.






We then have n linear algebraic equation with n
unknowns.


n i ds
n
V
ds
n
V V V
V V
j
j
i
ij
n
j
j
i
j
j
i
ij
n
j
j
n i n
n n
, , 1 , 0
2
cos
2
, cos where
0
1
1
,
,
= =
c
u c
t

|
c
u c
t

= | =
= +
}

Kutta condition


To impose the Kutta condition,
we choose to ignore one of
the control points.
The need to ignore one of the
control points introduces
some arbitrariness in the
numerical solution.


1
0 ) TE (

= =
i i