General Overview

Traffic/Signaling

Traffic/Signaling
The network can carry two types of information: Traffic: it concerns all the user to user information. It can be voice as well as data. Signaling: the network also requires to carry information for its own working. Their purposes are numerous: traffic data routing, maintenance, security. These data are usually not visible from users point of view.

Traffic/Signaling
PTS (Per-Trunk Signaling): signaling and voice component are transmitted on the same facility. PTS requires the voice component to be completely built, even if the call cant be completed. CCS (Common Channel Signaling): two separate paths are used for information transfer (one for traffic, another for all-related signaling information). Thus, CCS allows the voice component to be built separately which allows resources to be saved. For instance, no voice facilities would be assigned to the call if the dialed number is busy. GSM works with CCS(#7)

Network Overview

Network Overview
The principle component groups of a GSM network are: The Mobile Station (MS) This consists of the mobile telephone, fax machine etc. This is the part of the network that the subscriber will see. The Base Station System (BSS) This is the part of the network which provides the radio interconnection from the MS to the land-based switching equipment. The Network Switching System This consists of the Mobile services Switching Centre (MSC) and its associated system-control databases and processors together with the required interfaces. This is the part which provides for interconnection between the GSM network and the Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN). The Operations and Maintenance System This enables the network provider to configure and maintain the network from a central location.

IMSI

The International Mobile Subscriber Identity (IMSI) is the primary identification of the subscriber within the GSM network and is permanently assigned to him.

MSISDN
The Mobile Subscriber ISDN Number (MSISDN) is the number that the calling party dials in order to reach the GSM subscriber. It is used by the land networks to route calls toward an appropriate GSM network. MSISDN is stored in HLR.

IMEI

Stored inside the Mobile Equipment. Used to replace IMSI or TMSI when both are unavailable (example: Emergency calls without SIM-Card) or when required by the network (for maintenance). Can be used for EIR database updating (when existing):
TAC = 6 digits describing the type of equipment, FAC = 2 digits for identification of the factory, SNR = 6 digits for the serial number of the device.

MS Classmark

MS Classmark
The type of MS must be given to the NSS at the beginning of each new connection, because this type can change between calls. The subscriber may insert this SIM-Card into another Mobile Equipment (ME). The classmark of each MS can contain up to five parameters:
revision level, RF power capability, Encryption algorithm: A5/1, A5/2, Frequency capability: P-GSM (2 x 25 MHz), E-GSM (2 x 35 MHz), RGSM (2 x 4MHz), GSM 1800, GSM 1900, short message capability.

This classmark is sent when the system establishes the radio link between MS and the Base Transceivers Stations. The power class information is the maximum power the MS is able to transmit and is used by the network for several procedures: selection, power control, handover.

Mobile Services

Teleservices
Telephony Emergency Call SMS FAX Users data call features Voice Messaging

Supplementary Services
Line Identification Call Forwarding Call Diverting Call Waiting Conference Call Call Barring Advice of charge

RF Basics

Frequency Spectrum
GSM 900 and GSM 1800 Lies in this band

3dB Rule
In all wireless communication systems there are several factors that contribute to the loss of signal strength. Cabling, connectors, lightning arrestors can all impact the performance of your system if not installed properly. In a low power system every dB you can save is important!! Remember the 3 dB Rule.

For every 3 dB gain/loss you will either double your power (gain) or lose half your power (loss).

3dB Rule
-3 dB = 1/2 power -6 dB = 1/4 power +3 dB = 2x power +6 dB = 4x power Sources of loss in a wireless system: free space, cables, connectors, jumpers, obstructions

Sources of Noises
Noise consists of all undesired radio signals, whether manmade or natural. Noise makes the reception of useful information difficult. Manmade noise is generated almost anywhere that there is electrical activity, such as automobile ignition systems, power lines, motors, arc welders, fluorescent lights, and so on.

Propagation of Wave
The propagation of the radio waves through the atmosphere is how the information travels from one point to another in a wireless data network. For the types of networks of interest here, this propagation occurs entirely within the atmosphere near the Earth

Environmental Factors
Free Space Loss Absorption Reflection Refraction Diffraction Scattering

Free Space Loss

The free space loss is the widening out of the signal as it moves away from the antenna The effect is a loss of signal strength at the receiving end of the link. Higher frequency signals loose more than lower frequency signals, because the short wavelengths of the higher frequencies cannot bend around objects as can longer wavelengths

Free Space Loss

Free Space Loss = C + (20 * Log(D)) + (20 * Log(F)) For both measuring systems
D = Distance in Kilometers/Miles F = Frequency in Megahertz

For kilometers C = 32.4 For miles C = 36.6

Reflection
Reflection is a change in direction of the signal from reflecting material. If the material does not absorb all of the signal, some signals must reflected in another direction. Reflection appears as multipath.

Refraction
Refraction is the bending of a wave as it passes through an object. It is not reflected off, but mostly passes through the object. In atmospheric refraction when the wave front reaches a area of less dense air it starts to travel faster than the part of the wave front still in the more dense air.

Diffraction
Diffraction occurs when a RF wave is obstructed by a surface that has sharp edges or a rough surface, such as the edge of a building or a hill. The signal moves around the object and back to the other side, but a shadowed area appears behind the object

Diffraction

Scattering and Absorption

Line of Sight
Attaining good Line of Sight (LOS) between the sending and receiving antenna is essential in both Point to Point and Point to Multipoint installations Generally there are two types of LOS that are used discussed during installations:
Optical LOS - is related to the ability to see one site from the other Radio LOS related to the ability of the receiver to see the transmitted signal

Cellular Concept

Overview
A cellular telephone system links mobile station (MS) subscribers into the public telephone system or to another cellular systems MS subscriber. Information sent between the MS subscriber and the cellular network uses radio communication. This removes the necessity for the fixed wiring used in a traditional telephone installation. Due to this, the MS subscriber is able to move around and become fully mobile, perhaps travelling in a vehicle or on foot.

Cell
Mobile Stations within the cellular network are located in cells, these cells are provided by the BSSs. Each BSS can provide one or more cells, dependent on the manufacturers equipment. The cells are normally drawn as hexagonal, but in practice they are irregularly shaped, this is as a result of the influence of the surrounding terrain, or of design by the network planners.

Cell Size
The number of cells in any geographic area is determined by the number of MS subscribers who will be operating in that area, and the geographic layout of the area (hills, lakes, buildings etc). Large Cells
Generally large cells are employed in: Remote areas. Coastal regions. Areas with few subscribers. Large areas which need to be covered with the minimum number of cell sites.

Cell Size
Small Cells
Urban areas. Low transmission power required. High number of MSs.

Pico Cells

Co-Channel Interference
This occurs when RF carriers of the same frequency are transmitting in close proximity to each other, the transmission from one RF carrier interferes with the other RF carrier. In C/I, I>9dB
C/I > 9dB Frequency Hopping C/I>12dB Without Frequency Hopping

Adjacent Channel Interference

This occurs when an RF source of a nearby frequency interferes with the RF carrier. In C/A, A > -9dB

Sectorization
The cells we have looked at up to now are called omnidirectional cells. That is each site has a single cell and that cell has a single transmit antenna which radiates the radio waves to 360 degrees. The problem with employing Omni-directional cells is that as the number of MSs increases in the same geographical region, we have to increase the number of cells to meet the demand. To gain a increase in capacity within the geographic area we can employ a technique called sectorization. Each cell uses special directional antennas to ensure that the radio propagation from one cell is concentrated in a particular direction. Cell can be sectorized in 600,1200

Sectorization

Frequency Spectrum
Carrier frequency = ARFCN = Absolute Radio Frequency Channel Number P-GSM 900: Fl(n) = 890 + 0.2*n (1 =n =124) Fu(n) = Fl(n) + 45, GSM 1800: Fl(n) = 1710.2 + 0.2*(n-512) (512 =n =885) Fu(n) = Fl(n) + 95,

GSM ARCHITECTURE
From CP02 notes

Power Control
This is a feature of the GSM air interface which allows the network provider to not only compensate for the distance from MS to BTS as regards timing, but can also cause the BTS and MS to adjust their power output to take account of that distance also. The closer the MS is to the BTS, the less the power it and the BTS will be required to transmit. This feature saves radio battery power at the MS, and helps to reduce co-channel and adjacent channel interference. Initial power setting for the MS is set by the information provided on the Broadcast Control Channel (BCCH) for a particular cell.

Power Control
On SACCH, BTS instruct the MS how much the uplink power is used on downlink. Measurement reports are sent from MS to BTS.

Voice Activity Detection (VAD)

VAD is a mechanism whereby the source transmitter equipment identifies the presence or absence of speech. VAD implementation is effected in speech mode by encoding the speech pattern silences at a rate of 500 bit/s rather than the full 13 kbit/s. This results in a data transmission rate for background noise, known as comfort noise, which is regenerated in the receiver. Without comfort noise the total silence between the speech would be considered to be disturbing by the listener.

Discontinuous Transmission (DTX)

DTX increases the efficiency of the system through a decrease in the possible radio transmission interference level. If the MS does not transmit during silences there is a reduction in the overall power output requirement. DTX is implemented over a SACCH multiframe (480 ms). During this time, of the possible 104 frames, only the 4 SACCH frames and 8 Silence Discriptor (SID) frames are transmitted.

Discontinuous Transmission (DTX)

Discontinuous Reception (DRX)

DRX allows the MS to effectively switch off during times when reception is deemed unnecessary. By monitoring the BCCH, FCCH and the SCH the MS is aware of the Frame Number and repetition format for Frame Synchronization. It can therefore, after initially locking on to a BCCH, determine when the next relevant information is to be transmitted. This allows the MS to go to sleep and listen-in only when necessary, with the effective saving in power usage.

Discontinuous Reception (DRX)

DRX may only be used when a MS is not in a call. (REMAINING FROM CP02)

Multipath Fading
Multipath Fading results from a signal travelling from a transmitter to a receiver by a number of routes. This is caused by the signal being reflected from objects, or being influenced by atmospheric effects as it passes, for example, through layers of air of varying temperatures and humidity. Received signals will therefore arrive at different times and not be in phase with each other, they will have experienced time dispersion. On arrival at the receiver, the signals combine either constructively or destructively, the overall effect being to add together or to cancel each other out.

Multipath Fading
When the receive antenna is moving, the exact phase of each path changes and consequently the combined signal-strength is also continually changing.

Time Dispersion
Time dispersion may cause problems in environments with, e.g. mountains, lakes with steep or densely built shores, hilly cities, and high metalcovered buildings. The interferer, R, is a time delayed reflection of the wanted carrier. According to GSM specifications, the signal strength ratio C/R must be larger than 9 dB (compared to the C/Icriterion). However, if the time delay is smaller than 15 ms (i.e., 4 bits or approximately 4.4 km), the equalizer can solve the problem. If there are quality problems, time dispersion measurements must be taken to verify that time dispersion is actually causing the poor quality.