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To know the types of cutting processes To know the types of chips formed To be able to calculate the cutting forces & power involved To acknowledge the temperature distribution in the cutting tool To distinguish between different types of wear mechanism

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A family of shaping operations, the common feature of which is removal of material from a starting work material so the remaining part has the desired geometry Machining material removal from work material by a sharp cutting tool.

Divided into a) Cutting single point -turning - multipoint - milling, drilling

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Abrasive processes - material removal by hard, abrasive particles, e.g., grinding

Nontraditional processes - various energy forms other than sharp cutting tool to remove material - Waterjet, Laser machining

MACHINING
Cutting action involves shear deformation of work material to form a chip As chip is removed, new surface is exposed

(a) A cross-sectional view of the machining process, (b) tool with negative rake angle; compare with positive rake angle in (a).

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Closer dimensional accuracy Casting not very accurate Produce holes Improve surface finish
Produce internal and external profiles Sharp corners & flatness can not be produced by forming & shaping process Heat treated parts have rough surface finish Need grinding to improve surface finish
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3.

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Special surface characteristics like copper mirror requires diamond cutting tool More economical If quantity of machining is large

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More energy, capital & labor is used Material removal process waste of material Removing material takes more time than other processes Material removing can have adverse effects on the tool and surface of work material if not removed properly
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2.

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Most important machining operations: Turning Drilling Milling Other machining operations: Shaping and planning Broaching Sawing
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2.

Three most common machining processes:

(a) turning

Single point cutting tool removes material from a rotating work material to form a cylindrical shape

Used to create a round hole, usually by means of a rotating tool (drill bit) with two cutting edges

(b) drilling,

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1.

Rotating multiple-cutting-edge tool is moved across work to cut a plane or straight surface Two forms:

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peripheral milling

face milling
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1.

Single-Point Tools
One dominant cutting edge Point is usually rounded to form a nose radius Turning uses single point tools

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Multiple Cutting Edge Tools

More than one cutting edge Motion relative to work achieved by rotating Drilling and milling use rotating multiple cutting edge tools 14

(a) A single-point tool showing rake face, flank, and tool point; and (b) a helical milling cutter, representative of tools with multiple cutting edges.
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1.

Three dimensions of a machining process: Cutting speed v primary motion Feed f secondary motion Depth of cut d penetration of tool below original work surface.
a) b)

Radial Axial

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2.

For certain operations, material removal rate can be computed as MRR = v f d

where v = cutting speed; f = feed; d = depth of cut

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Radial

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Axial

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1.

In production, several roughing cuts are usually taken on the part, followed by one or two finishing cuts Roughing - removes large amounts of material from starting work material Creates shape close to desired geometry, but leaves some material for finish cutting High feeds and depths, low speeds

2.

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3.

Finishing - completes part geometry Final dimensions, tolerances, and finish Low feeds and depths, high cutting speeds

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Simplified 2-D model of machining that describes the mechanics of machining fairly accurately

Orthogonal cutting:
(a) as a three-dimensional process.
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Chip thickness after cut always greater than before, so chip ratio always less than 1.0
r to tc

Where r = chip thickness ratio; to = thickness of the chip prior to chip formation; tc = chip thickness after separation
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Based on the geometric parameters of the orthogonal model, the shear plane angle can be determined as:
tan r cos 1 r sin

where r = chip ratio, and = rake angle

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Shear strain during chip formation: (a) chip formation depicted as a series of parallel plates sliding relative to each other, (b) one of the plates isolated to show shear strain, and (c) shear strain triangle used to derive strain equation.

Shear strain in machining can be computed from the following equation, based on the preceding parallel plate model:

= tan( - ) + cot

where = shear strain, = shear plane angle, and = rake angle of cutting tool

More realistic view of chip formation, showing shear zone rather than shear plane. Also shown is the secondary shear zone resulting from tool-chip friction.
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1. 2. 3. 4.

Discontinuous chip Continuous chip Continuous chip with Built-up Edge (BUE) Serrated chip

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Brittle work materials Low cutting speeds Large feed and depth of cut High tool-chip friction

(a) discontinuous

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Ductile work materials

High cutting speeds Small feeds and depths Sharp cutting edge Low tool-chip friction

(b) continuous

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Ductile materials Low-to-medium cutting speeds Tool-chip friction causes portions of chip to adhere to rake face BUE forms, then breaks off, cyclically

(c) continuous with built-up edge

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Semicontinuous - sawtooth appearance Cyclical chip forms with alternating high shear strain then low shear strain Associated with difficult-tomachine metals at high cutting speeds
(d) serrated.
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Groove

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Forces in metal cutting:

(a) forces acting on the chip in orthogonal cutting

Friction force, F and Normal force to friction, N Shear force Fs and Normal force to shear Fn

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1.

Orthogonal cutting Cutting tool edge perpendicular to movement of tool Chip moves up to the face of tool

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2.

Oblique cutting Cutting tool edge is at an inclined angle, i Chip moves laterally Increased i, chips become longer and thinner

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Coefficient of friction between tool and chip:

F N

Friction angle related to coefficient of friction as follows:

tan

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Shear stress acting along the shear plane:

Fs S As

where As = area of the shear plane

t ow As sin

Shear stress = shear strength of work material during cutting

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1. 2.

F, N, Fs, and Fn cannot be directly measured Forces acting on the tool that can be measured: Cutting force Fc and Thrust force Ft

Forces in metal cutting: (b) forces acting on the tool that can be measured

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3.

Cutting force, Fc Act in the direction of the cutting speed, V and supplies the energy required for the cutting Thrust force, Ft Acts in a direction normal to the cutting velocity perpendicular to Fc Ft and Fc produced the resultant force, R
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4.

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R can be resolved into friction, F normal force, N

The relationship can be derived as:
F = R sin N = R cos

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Equations can be derived to relate the forces that cannot be measured to the forces that can be measured: F = Fc sin + Ft cos N = Fc cos - Ft sin Fs = Fc cos - Ft sin Fn = Fc sin + Ft cos Based on these calculated force, shear stress and coefficient of friction can be determined
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2.

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Of all the possible angles at which shear deformation can occur, the work material will select a shear plane angle that minimizes energy, given by
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2. 3.

Derived by Eugene Merchant Based on orthogonal cutting, but validity extends to 3-D machining

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To increase shear plane angle Increase the rake angle Reduce the friction angle (or coefficient of friction)

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1.

Higher shear plane angle means smaller shear plane which means lower shear force, cutting forces, power, and temperature

Effect of shear plane angle : (a) higher with a resulting lower shear plane area; (b) smaller with a corresponding larger shear plane area. Note that the rake angle is larger in (a), which tends to increase shear angle according to the Merchant equation
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1.

Temperature in cutting causes: Strength, hardness & wear resistance low Causes dimensional changes & low accuracy Induce thermal damage the machined surface Cause distortion of machine, poor dimensional control

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2.

Temperature increases during machining because of:

Strength of material increase High speed Large depth of cut Low specific heat & thermal conductivity, k

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As speed increases, a large proportion of heat generated is carried away by the chip & little heat goes into the work material.

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1.

To measure temperature & its distribution in its cutting zone, thermocouples are used It is embedded into the tool and /or the work material Thermal emf at the tool-chip interface as a hot junction between 2 different materials Radiation pyrometer infrared radiation Used to measure surface temperature
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2.

3.

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1. Group consists of 3 students 2. Submit the name of group members 2. Collect the assignment's title 3. Submission date

WEDNESDAY 9 OCTOBER 2013

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Please download Tutorial 1 Fundamental of Cutting from LMS

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